LB 



:ate maintenance for 
teachers in training 



By 



WALTER SCOTT HERTZQG 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 

in the Faculty of Philosophy 

Columbia University 



BALTIMORE 

WARWICK & YORK, Inc. 

1921 



STATE MAINTENANCE FOR 
TEACHERS IN TRAINING 



STATE MAINTENANCE FOR 
TEACHERS IN TRAINING 



By 
WALTER SCOTT HERTZOG 



Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements 

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 

in the Faculty of Philosophy 

Columbia University 



BALTIMORE 

WARWICK & YORK, Inc. 

1921 






Copyright, 1921, By 

WARWICK & YORK, INC. 



OCT 21 iSi$ 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

A study of this kind is impossible without the assistance 
of many school officials and other educators. I wish to 
acknowledge my debt of gratitude to all who have so 
courteously cooperated in securing the data. In many 
instances it was not feasible to give the names of those 
who responded to my requests for information. Educa- 
tional literature has been used freely in compiling the 
statements of conditions in various states and countries. 

Whatever measure of success has 'been achieved in this 
study is largely due to the personal influence and inspira- 
tion of Dr. Wm. C. Bagley, of Teachers College, who 
was the pioneer in advocating subsidies for prospective 
teachers in the United States. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 
Chapter I — The Prospective Teacher and the State 

Conditions that make a profession attractive. . . 7 

Teacher-training as a state function 8 

Methods by which the state may provide trained 

teachers 13 

Purpose of this study 23 

Chapter 11. — A Survey of Conditions which May 
Justify Additional Aid for Prospective 
Teachers 

Introduction 25 

Composition of the teaching population 26 

Statistics of educational development since 1870 43 
Cost of training at Normal Schools 55 

Chapter III. — Plans for Recruiting the Profession 
Through Financial Assistance 

In the United States 61 

In Canada 69 

In Latin-America 70 

In Europe ^2 

In Asia 78 

In New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. . . 79 

Chapter IV. — Methods of Recruiting other Profes- 
sions and Occupations Through 
Financial Assistance 

In industry 83 

In occupations for women (telephone, telegraph, 

stenography, nursing) 83 

Army and Navy — West Point and Annapolis. , . 85 
Scholarships for higher education 88 

3 



4. STATE MAINTKNANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

Traveling scholarships 90 

New York State Nautical School 90 

Church boards of education and the ministry. . 91 

Chapter V. The Advantages and Disadvantages of 
Subsidies for Teacher Training as an 
Element in Recruiting the Profession 

Advantages 103 

Disadvantages 113 

Chapter VI. Conclusions 

Terms of a state subsidy bill 127 

Bibliography 135 

Appendix A. Table of State Situation on Teacher 

Training I39 

Appendix B. Recent or Pending Legislation 141 



Table 


I. 


Table 


II. 


Table 


III. 


Table 


IV. 


Table 


V. 


Table 


VI. 


Table 


va 



Table VIII. 



Table 
Table 

Table 



IX. 
X. 

XI. 



Table 


XII. 


Table 


XIII. 


Table 


XIV. 


Table 


XV. 


Table 


XVI. 



TABLES AND DIAGRAMS 

Preparation of Teachers in Missouri in Years 

Beyond Elementary Schools 27 

Preparation of Elementary Teachers of 

Montana 1919-20 31 

Preparation of High School Teachers in 

Montana 1919-20 32 

Prepared Teachers in Public Schools of 

Montana 191 1 to 1920 33 

Average Salaries of Teachers in Relation 

to Training — Montana 1919-20 34 

Teacher Shortage in the United States, 
October, 1920 36 

Comparison of the Development of Normal 
Schools, High Schools, Colleges and Uni- 
versities with Population, Wealth, and 
Public School Systems 44 

New York State Normal Schools— Attend- 
ance and Graduates 48 

Increase in University Enrollment 1915-1920 49 

Comparison of Intelligence in Pennsylvania 
Colleges and Normal Schools in Octo- 
ber, 1919 '. . 52 

Comparison of Ability of Freshmen in Nor- 
mal Schools and Universities as Meas- 
ured by the Army Alpha Test 53 

Henry C. Frick Educational Commission, 
Pittsburgh, Pa 69 

Remuneration and Educational Requirements 
of Nurses in General Hospitals in the 
United States 86 

Present Occupation of American Rhodes 
Scholars, 1904-1914 89 

Activities of General Education Board of 
Methodist Church (Report of 1920) 93 

Activities of General Education Board of 
Presbyterian Church (Report of 1920).. 94 

5 



STATE maintenance; o^ teachers in training 



Table XVII. Chicago Presbytery — Membership of Churches 96 
Table XVIII. Chicago Presbytery — Change of Membership 

in last year 97 

Table XIX. Chicago Presbytery — Sunday School Member- 
ship 98 

Table XX. Chicago Presbytery — Congregational Expenses 99 

Table XXI. Chicago Presbytery — Benevolences 100 

Table XXII. Record of Scholarship Students in Washing- 
ton and Jefferson College 114 

Table XXIII. Comparative Record of Aided and Unaided 

Students — 'Syracuse University 114 

Table XXIV. Comparative Records from New York State 

College for Teachers 116 

Table XXV. Appendix A. Assistance Rendered by States 

to Prospective Teachers 139 

Diagram i. Relation of Cost of lyiving and Change in 

Teachers' Salaries 19 

Diagram 2. Graph for Table VII 45 

Diagram 3. Graph for Table X 51 

Diagram 4. Graph for Table XI. 54 

Diagram 5. From Survey of Indiana High School Seniors., no 



Chapter I. 
THE PROSPECTIVE TEACHER AND THE STATE 

The public school systems of the several states require a 
large number of new teachers every year. The factors 
that determine vocational choice should be studied by 
investigators for the purpose of discovering what induce- 
ments the state must offer, in order to attract recruits in 
sufficient numbers to make suitable selection and ample 
training possible. 

CONDITIONS THAT MAKE A PROFESSION ATTRACTIVE 

As a young person surveys the possibilities of different 
professional careers, a factor of importance for his con- 
sideration is the salary paid. He must be able to live in 
a manner corresponding to the position he occupies in 
the community. His earnings must enable him to carry 
insurance, to save for the future, and to provide for those 
dependent upon him. Another consideration of great 
value is the question of tenure. Will employment be 
regular and permanent, and will successful service be 
rewarded by promotion? The attitude of society toward 
the work under consideration counts heavily. May the 
worker associate with desirable people on a basis of 
equality on account of the service rendered? What are 
the opportunities for individual initiative and growth in 
the work? Before entering the profession it will be 
necessary to know what preliminary training is required 
and what kind of supervision is to be expected from those 
in authority. 

When these questions are correctly answered, the rea- 
sons are apparent why so many young people are not 
selecting teaching as a profession. The cost and incon- 

7 



8 STATE maintenance: OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

venience of securing preliminary training, inadequate 
salaries, uncertain tenure, and undesirable social and 
living conditions, — all contribute to the lack of trained 
teachers. In rural sections all of these causes are inten- 
sified by the fact that supervision is usually remote and 
consequently infrequent. In the larger communities teach- 
ing encounters the competition of many other occupations 
which often prove to be more attractive. The resulting 
shortage in the cities is supplied by drawing from the 
country districts the best qualified teachers to be found 
there, or by employing local persons of inferior prepara- 
tion. Both tendencies produce a situation that has been 
a persistent menace to the success of the public schools. 

The elements which make a profession attractive are 
intimately interwoven. If the drawing power of teaching 
is to be increased, the states must make a united effort 
to improve all of the factors. 

TEACHER TRAINING AS A STATE FUNCTION 

For many years the states have been endeavoring to 
prepare teachers for the public schools. By the invest- 
ment of large sums of public money in grounds, buildings, 
and equipment for teacher training, the obligation to 
provide adequately trained teachers has been admitted. 
Additional evidence of the state's interest in securing 
trained teachers is supplied by the fact that every state 
provides free tuition in some form for prospective teach- 
ers.^ 

The duty of the state has not been discharged when a 
system of licensing teachers by state authority permits 
those who have had meager academic training and little 
or no professional preparation to enter into the vital rela- 



ISee Appendix A. 

2For example, Provisional Certificates in Pa., third grade certiflcatea 
in Missouri, 



THE prospective: teacher AND THE STATE 9 

tionships of the school room.^ Citizens should demand 
that the state perform more completely and more equita- 
bly its duty of training teachers. 

The needs of the schools are not met if some of the 
teachers are well trained and others are permitted to 
remain untrained or undertrained. This situation is not 
fair to the professional teacher, who has spent time and 
money in preparation and then is thrown into economic 
competition with the cheap service of the untrained ama- 
teur. It is still more unfair to those pupils whose opopr- 
tunities are thus limited by the inadequacy of a state 
policy. 

Effective school systems compel the children to attend 
regularly. This power on the part of the state implies a 
corresponding duty : namely, that the state provide the 
conditions upon which the most desirable benefits to be 
derived from school attendance depend. It is universally 
admitted that the teacher is the most important element 
in the success of the school ; hence the effective prepara- 
tion of teachers should constitute one of the important 
objectives in any program for the development and im- 
provement of the schools. 

EXTENSIVE TRAINING REQUIRED FOR TEACHERS 

The work of teaching in the elementary school is becom- 
ing increasingly difficult. The diversity and variety of 
the subjects included in the curriculum, the expanding 
knowledge of the laws of learning, and the development 
of the principles of the fine art of teaching, — all emphasize 
the need for extensive training. The difficulty and im- 
portance of teaching demand a proportionate thorough- 
ness in preliminary preparation. 

IS TEACHING A PROFESSION? 

The requirement of careful and exhaustive training is 
an essential feature of the learned professions and the 



lO STATIC MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

tendency has been to prolong professional training in law 
and medicine.^ 

Teaching possesses many of the characteristics which 
place it among the professional careers. It deals with 
human beings rather than with materials; it is founded 
upon fundamental principles that regulate procedure. 
There has not as yet been developed among teachers a 
code of ethics comparable to those that prevail in law and 
medicine. "Owing to the large numbers employed in 
public school teaching, the wide territory over which 
they are scattered, the inadequate preparation of many 
of them, and the short period of service characteristic 
of the teacher, it has been difficult to develop and main- 
tain a thoroughly well organized professional conscious- 
ness, expressing itself in the recognition of a definite 
series of professional ethics."^ But, notwithstanding 
this lack, there is a sharp contrast between teaching and 
the trades, which justifies its classification with the other 
professions. The state has the power to eliminate any 
deficiencies which prevent teaching from complete recog- 
nition as a profession, and at the same time to render a 
distinct service to the public schools. 

AMOUNT OF TRAINING REQUIRED 

The efforts of the states to improve the teaching per- 
sonnel are eminently justified by the fact that so large a 
proportion of the teachers of the nation as a whole have 
insufficient preparation as measured by the prevailing 
standards of the professional schools of teaching, — the 
normal schools. Two years of professional work beyond 
the four year high school course is less than the require- 
ment in the other professions and while many normal 
schools are now offering four years of training leading to 

3) Articles on Law and Medicine — Cyclopedia of Education. — 
Monroe. 

4) H. Suzzallo, Cyclopedia of Education, Profession of Teaching", 
p. 535. 



the: prospective teacher and the state II 

collegiate degrees, these extend-ed programs do not enroll 
as yet an appreciable proportion of the students. It is 
not possible in a short time, for a sufficient number of 
teachers to obtain the preliminary training which is ad- 
mittedly essential to give them professional recognition. 
As a result, entirely and relatively untrained teachers in 
large numbers have been employed in order to keep the 
schools open. 

The elimination of the unfit teachers involves a per- 
sistent program through a period of years, — a. program 
that makes use of all means that lead to the ultimate goal 
of a trained teacher in every classroom. Until this rea- 
sonable ideal is attained, criticism of the public school 
may be expected, and many of its failures may be con- 
sidered as unnecessary and preventable. 

TEACHER SHORTAGE^ 

One of the problems that the war forced upon the 
attention of the public was the distressing shortage of 
teachers. This lack was caused in part by the large 
number of teachers who left the profession to take advan- 
tage of the high salaries paid in many branches of war 
work. Closed schools^ and the employment of unquali- 
fied emergency substitutes'^ were additional evidences of 
the gravity of the situation. Serious as these conditions 
were, the supply of teachers prepared by the training insti- 

5) Note: Although many untrained teachers were employed in 
1914, no article discussing the problem of teacher shortage 
was listed under that title in Poole's "Readers Guide to Peri- 
odical Literature" for that year. In 1919 twelve articles were 
listed, and twenty-five or more appeared in 1920. Magazines 
other than those devoted primarily to education have per- 
ceived the value of informing their readers with reference 
to the crisis in the public schools. "The Atlantic Monthly," 
"Scribner's," "The North American Review," "The Yale Re- 
view," The Survey" and "The World's Work" are among 
the number. 

3) See Discussion on Conditions in Montana, Chapter II, p. 30. 

7) See N. E. A. Report on Teacher Shortage, October, 1920, p. 36. 



12 STATE MAINTE:nANCE: OF Te:aCHERS in TRAINING 

tutions was entirely inadequate and contributed to the 
actual lack of teachers. Necessarily standards were often 
lowered in order to secure teachers of any kind. It is 
therefore evident that closed schools are not a complete 
measure of teacher shortage. 

It is an implied obligation of the state not only that 
teachers be supplied but that they have the preparation 
which is recognized as a reasonable minimum. The true 
teacher shortage is the number needed at any time to 
replace teachers who lack this mmimum preparation.^ 
The interest of the public in the conditions which caused 
the lack of competent teachers and in proposed remedies 
IS clearly justified. 

Thousands of children in some of the large cities, such 
as New York, for example, have been attending but part 
time, a condition which may result in a reduction in the 
number of teachers required. Again the number of teach- 
ers employed does not reveal the fact that the enrollment 
per teacher may be far in excess of forty, which is a rea- 
sonable maximum. If these conditions were bettered 
through additional housing facilities and reduction in 
size of classes, the resulting demand for teachers would 
further emphasize the lack of an adequate supply, 
although no exact figures can be compiled to show how 
many additional teachers are actually needed. It may, 
however, be safely assumed that the deficit is always 
greater than the information obtainable would indicate.^ 
In all of its educational opportunities, the state offers 
to every child a measure of participation that is limited 
only by his ability, his ambition, and his attainments. 
Justice requires that each pupil receive a full day's instruc- 
tion in a group of not more than normal size, under 
guidance of a teacher who has had at least two years of 

B) Definition of teacher-shortage used in this study. 
9) N. E. A. Emergency Commission Series, No. 3, p. 10. 



THE rROSPECTlVE TEACHER AND THE STATE I3 

professional work beyond a four-year high school course, 
— the standard of preparation that is now generally 
accepted as the lowest acceptable minimum. How can 
these trained teachers be secured? Several factors will 
contribute toward this desirable goal. Every method that 
can hasten the process should be utilized. 

REMEDIES EOR TEACHER SHORTAGE 
I. Training teachers in service: 

It has been proposed to solve this problem by employing 
untrained recruits and by training them in service on an 
apprenticeship plan. Years of experience with this 
method have demonstrated that it alone will not produce 
a trained teacher in every classroom. ^^ 

In the rural schools where approximately 300,060 
teachers are employed, training in service fails because 
supervision is so infrequent and so remote-. Training in 
service cannot succeed in the rural districts because so 
many teachers move every year and remain in the profes-^ 
sion for so short a time. Those teachers who succeed are 
frequently promoted to better salaried and otherwise 
more attractive positions in the larger communities. The 
failures remain in the rural field until they can find some 
other occupation or until the school board selects some 
one else, probably no better prepared, to undertake the 
difificult problems of teaching. Meanwhile, the pupils 
are being subjected to the unhappy experience of serving 
as material with which to train these transient recruits. 
Such a plan is an expedient, the results of which have 
already condemned it as a controlling policy, for it tends 
to keep in the profession on its lower levels a large pro- 
portion of recruits with meag"er training. 

The training of teachers after they have entered the 
service is a proposed solution that neglects the fact that 
teaching is a diflicult task, a fine art. It puts a premium 

10) See Quotations from Surveys, Chapter II, p. 38. 



14 vSTate: maintknanck of trachrrs in training 

on the incidental agencies of supervision, teachers' insti- 
tutes, and summer schools, as substitutes for genuine 
and basic training in an institution organized arid main- 
tained for this one purpose. 

The employment of unprepared persons as teachers 
with the expectation of training them in the schools, con- 
centrates the aim of educational effort upon the personal 
needs of the teachers, and disregards the fact that the 
schools exist for the pupils. Parents have objected occa- 
sionally to the attendance of their children in practice 
schools connected with normal schools, where the work 
of the student teachers is carefully planned and super- 
vised by skilled experts. It would be far more reasonable 
for parents to rise in revolt against the undirected work 
of many rural teachers whose previous preparation is 
often inferior to that of the student in the normal school. 

Again it has been urged that untrained teachers may 
take extension courses or correspondence courses and 
thus acquire the training they lack. A conscientious 
rural school teacher has so much to do in daily prepara- 
tion that either these outside and often unrelated courses 
or his regular work must suffer. Ihis type of training 
lacks the personal contact with the instructor and with 
fellow students that is so important an element in insti- 
tutional life, and cannot result in the value derived from 
the training school for practice. 

When untrained teachers are placed under close super- 
vision, in districts where high school graduates without 
professional courses are admitted as teachers, the results 
are easily predictable. Such teachers have no professional 
background upon which to base their judgments; either 
they become undiscerning followers of directions, depend- 
ent upon their supervisors, or, restive under control, they 
desert the profession as soon as the other opportunity 
offers. 



TH^ PROSPECTIVE TEACHER AND THE STATE 1 5 

If the State is responsible for the training of teachers, 
it is a questionable policy to permit the untrained to 
secure their preparation in the service v^here the legiti- 
mate direction and oversight of that function by state 
authority is impossible. The work of school administra- 
tors is sufficiently taxing when they have the cooperation 
of a trained body of teachers. Cities often require both 
training and experience for admission to the teaching 
staff, although the opportunity for expert supervision is 
there superior to that found in smaller communities. The 
burdens of the supervisory staff are multiplied and its 
energies diverted from more legitimate duties if it is 
required to give fundamental teacher training in order 
to supply the lack of institutional preparation. 

To train teachers in service to the exclusion of prelim- 
inary training is to perpetuate the transient character of 
the teaching population and to encourage the employment 
of the immature and incompetent. Teaching cannot take 
the place that it should among the professions until it is 
as difficult for an untrained person to be admitted within 
its ranks as it is for an untrained person to receive a 
license to practice medicine. 

Trained teachers have abundant opportunity for growth 
in the profession and are able to derive from such train- 
ing benefits that are directly proportional to their prelim- 
inary preparation. They possess the foundation upon 
which to build. It is one of the important duties of ad- 
ministrators to stimulate teachers to self-improvement 
through self-discipline, through professional reading, and 
through summer school attendance, but such development 
should supplement and not supplant preliminary training. 
2. Larger salaries as a solution for teacher shortage: 

The attractiveness of teaching as a profession has been 
seriously reduced by the payment of inadequate salaries. 
Salary schedules have often failed to discriminate prop- 



l6 STATE maintenance: OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

erly between the merits of the prepared and the untrained 
teacher. The inequalities in salaries in positions of the 
same rank under the system of local control that prevails 
in the public schools, have resulted in injustice and dis- 
satisfaction. As long as there is an insufficient supply of 
trained teachers the more attractive salaries in the richer 
communities will continue to draw the more ambitious 
and better prepared teachers from those districts that are 
unable to meet the competition. 

To increase salaries without modifying the certification 
laws, would not add to the professional equipment of the 
beginner. To pay higher salaries to unprepared and 
incompetent persons who desire to use teaching as a step- 
ping stone, would only intensify and extend the evils now 
apparent. 

As a result of salary campaigns, many cities now pay 
living wages to teachers. But the cities were already 
employing the best prepared teachers, because the most 
attractive positions gave them the opportunity to select 
from a larger number of candidates. To give the country 
sections the same advantages, through salary increases, 
it would be necessary to overcome the undesirable factors 
of short school ternis and unsatisfactory living condi- 
tions by paying a sufficient differentially 

When the students from the country do attend normal 
school or college and secure training, the towns and cities 
almost always obtain their services because of the social 
and financial advantages of living in the larger communi- 
ties. In the rural schools of Montana only twelve per 
cent, of the teachers in 1920 were normal or college 
graduates, although 32.45% of the elementary teachers 
of the state possessed those qualifications. ^^ 

The slowness of states and nations to adjust salaries to 
new condiHons accounts for the wholesale resignations 

11) As in Saskatchewan and Queensland. 

12) See Table II, Chapter IL 



THK PR0SPE;CTIVE TlvACHRR AND THE STATE 1 7 

from the public service during periods of rapid increase 
in the cost of Hving. Burgess showed that teachers' 
salaries in 1920 should have been 100% in advance of the 
level reached in 191 5 in order to possess equal purchasing 
pov^er, but as a matter of fact the increases averaged less 
than a 50% advance over pre-war salaries. Other wage 
levels doubled the standard of 1915.-'^ 

The report of the Commissioner of Education for 1920 
states that the average salary of teachers in rural schools, 
based upon data from three typical counties in each of 
forty-seven states was $635.96. The average for white 
male teachers was $711.68, The conditions which were 
most favorable for further increasing salaries have been 
changed by falling prices, due to deflation and to a reac- 
tion against high taxes. Salaries in the rural schools are 
not likely, in the near future, to be increased very much 
beyond the average of 1920. Such salaries would not be 
a sufficient inducement for a young high school graduate 
to invest the necessary time and money on two years of 
training. 

Diagram No. i shows the wide variation between rise 
in cost of living and increase in salary of the women 
teachers of Pennsylvania. In the seven years repre- 
sented, living costs were doubled while salaries were 
only raised thirty per cent. In order to remove teacher 
shortage by increase in salary alone, it would be neces- 
sary for salaries to be so far above the cost of living 
that the margin of saving would justify the heavy ex- 
pense of preliminary preparation. It would take an un- 
known element of time for these acquired margins to be 
recognized in society at large, to such an extent that the 
number of recruits necessary to supply the need would 
volunteer to invest time and money in professional prep- 
aration. 

13) Burgess, Trends of School Costs, RusseU Sage Foundation, 
New York, 1920. 



l8 STATE MAINTENANCE 01^ TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

It is especially difficult to persuade prospective teachers 
to invest in training, when it is possible to receive practi- 
cally the same salary without incurring the expense of 
preparation. The two factors of better preliminary train- 
ing and increased salaries cannot be separated safely in 
state policy. In periods of business depression, when the 
offices and factories have reduced the number of their 
employees, a large group who were teachers formerly 
will drift back into the school room to seek temporary 
employment. The schools do not close on account of 
hard times, hence low standards for certification permit 
these relatively untrained transients to compete for posi- 
tions in the more stable occupation of teaching. Without 
proper legal safeguards, such a group of temporary and 
untrained persons will underbid the trained and experi- 
enced teachers and thus undermine the foundations of an 
adequate salary schedule. 

Higher salaries based upon the amount of preparation 
are essential to the future of the profession of teaching. 
The states have not performed their full duty towards 
the children when they tolerate such inadequate salaries 
especially in the rural schools. The scarcity of good 
teachers in those districts is undoubtedly due in part to 
poor salaries. 
3. Are more normal schools required? 

The creation of more training institutions is offered 
as a simple solution for teacher-shortage. But the fact 
that the facilities of many, — apparently most, — of the 
existing normal schools are not being utilized to capacity 
shows that the problem is not to be solved in this way. 

Eventually, when the conditions in the profession are 
what they should be, many more normal schools will be 
needed to train enough teachers for all the schools. The 
tendency of training institutions to draw on their own 



THK PROSPKCTIVI^ TlvACHKR AND TllK STATE 



19 






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20 state: mainti^nance: of teachers in training 

vicinity for students is used as an argument for increas- 
ing their number, because it is cheaper for a student to 
live at home during his period of training. It is also 
urged that a multiplication of normal schools in a state 
will more directly influence the neighboring communities. 
In Indiana, until very recently, the one state normal 
school was at Terre Haute ; it rendered twelve per cent, 
of its service to the tier of counties surrounding the one 
in which it is located, although these counties contain 
only four per cent, of the state population. The region 
in which the school is located receivf:d three or four times 
the amount of service to which it is entitled on the basis 
of population.i^ 

Portions of states that are remote from normal schools 
greatly feel the need of their influence. Superintendent 
Kendall in his report for 191 3 quotes letters from girls 
in Southern New Jersey of which the following is an 
example: "The only reason for my not attending the 
normal school was the expense, on account of the nor- 
mal school being too far from my home." Since, for the 
present, the cost of multiplying normal schools may out- 
weigh other advantages, the state may equalize the oppor- 
tunities for training by such an expedient as bearing the 
cost of transportation of students. The attempt to bring 
the training to the local community through the high 
school training classes for rural teachers, is a temporary 
expedient, for it is quite impossible to develop effective 
professional schools in every center of population. 
4. Public opinion as a factor in teacher-shortage : 

The attitude of the public and of many teachers them- 
selves is so critical toward the teaching profession that 
it has contributed to teacher-shortage. The disparaging 
and contemptuous attitude of the public to the teaching 

14) standardizing- State Normal Schools, Judd and Parker. U. S. 
Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 12, 1916. 



the: prospective: te:ache:r and the state: 21 

profession has militated against its effectiveness. It is 
time that ridicule and caricature meted out to the teacher 
should be replaced by a genuine appreciation of the im- 
portance of his work to the state. Public opinion is a 
force of great influence and a better appreciation of the 
teacher's service would assist measurably in the recruit- 
ing of candidates of ability. 

High school and college students have been induced 
to enter other occupations because of a vague social 
stigma that has been attached to the profession of teach- 
ing. "At college reunions successful business men are 
heralded as 'live wires' and those who still teach are 
called ^dead ones.' "^^ Now that so many opportunities 
are opening for women in business and public service, it 
will be increasingly difficult to secure women of the de- 
sired ability unless something is done to change the 
public estimation of the profession. In order to create 
this attitude the state itself must assist the public by 
properly evaluating the worth and dignity of the teacher's 
'work. To this end the unfit teachers should be eliminated 
by efficient certification laws. A supply of competent 
teachers should be stimulated by state assistance, the 
necessity of which it is the aim of this study to prove. 
After preparation, the state still has a duty to perform 
in guaranteeing adequate compensation. Preparation, 
salary, tenure, and pensions, when they become essential 
elements in a persistent state policy, are the factors which 
will do much to re-create a proper public attitude toward 
the teaching profession. 
5. State subsidy for rccniithig teachers. 

Under present conditions great inequalities as to edu- 
cational opportunity exist between the children in the 
cities and in the rural sections. The highest salaries and 



15) Lee Russell, "The Crisis in Education," Scribner's, Jan., 1921. 



22 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

the longest tenure and consequently the best teachers are 
found in the cities. As a result many parents are leav- 
ing the country in order to secure for their children the 
educational advantages of the towns and cities. The 
safety of the nation requires the stability of the rural 
population. The rural children deserve a more equitable 
distribution of the educational privileges provided by 
public funds. Present state policy does not adequately 
meet the situation. In addition to the other factors 
which may tend to remove the undesirable conditions 
found in the teaching profession, state assistance for 
prospective teachers is proposed. 

It is the purpose of this study to investigate the extent 
of teacher-shortage and to discover in favored states the 
efforts to solve the problem already made which will be 
suggestive in those states where the problem must be at- 
tacked more vigorously. Many foreign countries have had 
experience in the recruiting of candidates for the teaching 
profession by means of subsidies. The study of the prin- 
ciples and problems involved in the provision of local and 
national subsidies for prospective teachers as a part of 
the larger problem of increasing the supply of trained 
teachers will accordingly be the chief aim of the following 
pages. 

SUMMARY 

1 . Teaching has failed to attract a sufficient supply of 
recruits to make adequate selection and training possible. 
State control of education locates the responsibility for 
teacher training and for the equalization of educational 
opportunity upon the state. 

2. The policy of training teachers after they enter the 
service as a substitute for institutional preparation has not 
been successful, especially in the open country. The 
unequal salaries paid in the rural schools and in the 



THE PROSPEICTIVE: T^ACHElR AND TH^ STATE) 23 

cities have drawn the better teachers to the centers of 
population. 

3. The pubHc attitude toward teaching has reduced 
the attendance in teacher training institutions. To im- 
prove the attractiveness of teaching as a profession, the 
state must use all the plans that experience has proved to 
be helpful. Additional efforts, especially of an economic 
and social nature, must be made if the rural schools are to 
be taught by competent teachers. 

4. The purpose of this present study is to investigate 
the principles, problems, and practices involved in a sys- 
tem of subsidies for prospective teachers as one method 
of recruiting the profession. 



Chapte:r II 

A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS WHICH MAY 

JUSTIFY ADDITIONAL AID FOR 

PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS 

State subsidies for prospective teachers are advocated 
by those whose main purpose is to supply an essential need 
in the public school system. If the lack of trained teach- 
ers is a serious problem in the various states, methods of 
supplying the deficiency should be found as speedily as 
possible. One of the great merits of the public school 
system has been its ability to adjust itself to new condi- 
tions and to make changes as the demand arose. The 
curriculum has changed from the three R's of the older 
days to the complex and greatly enriched programs of the 
modern school. Free textbooks, compulsory attendance, 
medical inspection, vocational education, secondary edu- 
cation, and higher education are examples of changes in 
policy that states have made in an effort to adjust the 
schools to the demands of a developing civilization. 

The war focused attention upon several problems re- 
lated to the schools which require study and solution. 
Illiteracy, physical inefficiency, and very wide individual 
differences in native intelligence, were revealed by the 
examination of the men in the camps. Each has its rela- 
tion to school practice and efficiency. If the public schools 
are to solve such problems, the training and selection ot 
the teachers have added significance. 

A study of the teaching population in two typical states 
will give a basis for further analysis of the problem of 
the need of state subsidies for prospective teachers. 

25 



26 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
TEACHING POPULATION OF MISSOURI.^ 

In the rural schools of Missouri, in 191 5, only 3% of 
the 10,500 rural teachers had had the standard prepara- 
tion of six years beyond the elementary school course, 
while 63% had had less than a four-year high school 
course. In the graded elementary schools, omitting those 
of Kansas City and St. Louis, 84% of the teachers had 
had less than the six-year course. The training of the 
secondary school teachers was more nearly adequate in 
the first and second class high schools. In the lower 
classes one-eighth of the teachers had had less than a 
four-year course beyond the elementary school. These 
conditions have been improved to some extent on account 
of the influence of the survey but the efifect of the world 
war has been to check, for the time at least, rapid progress. 
When these two factors are considered, the probability is 
that these groups now comprise a large proportion of 
poorly prepared teachers. 

The characteristic rural teacher has attended high 
school for two or three years and has taken six months 
of additional secondary instruction together with some 
professional courses at a normal school. The effect of 
this normal school training, however brief, is shown to be 
significant in the salaries paid. Eighty-five per cent, of 
those who attended state normal schools received more 
than forty dollars a month, as compared with 66% in 
the case of high school graduates only, and 50% in the 
case of high school non-graduates.^ The median salary 
of all elementary teachers, trained and untrained alike, 
was $450.00, while more than one-fifth received $360.00 
or less. 

According to the Report of the State Superintendent of 
Public Schools for Missouri for 1918-19, the average 

1) See Table I, pp. 27-28. 

2) Bulletin No. 14, Carnegie Foundation, p. 362. 



A SURVEY OF CONDITIONS 



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28 STATE MAINTENANCE O^ TEACHERS IN TRAINING 



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A SURVE:Y 01^ CONDITIONS 29 

salaries of teachers of this state have been advancing for 
several years. In 191 7-1 8 it was $440.00 for an eight- 
month term; in 1918-19 it was $528.00, and in 1919-20 it 
was $592.00. In the meantime the cost of Hving had 
doubled so that the increase in salary would not justify 
expensive training at a normal school as an investment. 
Again the certification law passed in 191 7 permits the 
renewal of the third grade certificate once without exam- 
ination. Inasmuch as previous law permits, four such 
examinations to be taken, eight years may be taught with 
no better grade of certificate. This is a period far in ex- 
cess of the average tenure for the rural schools, as returns 
from these teachers showed that 2400 new teachers, or 
23%, in this group alone were needed annually. Under 
these conditions, a trained teacher for every school in 
Missouri is an impossible ideal. 

TI<:aCHING population of MONTANA 

Montana received first rank among the states in educa- 
tional accomplishment in 191 8 by the index number 
method applied by Ayres. On account of the state's high 
standing, the condition of its teaching population has 
special interest. A state survey quoted at length in the 
State Superintendent's report for 1920 gives the desired 
data. Many important factors in school progress were 
not included in the index number method. Among these 
were the educational requirements for teachers and the 
facilities for training teachers. By law, after July i, 1920, 
the minimum requirements were fixed at two years of 
high school and twelve weeks of normal school training. 

In Table II it is shown that 30% of the elementary 
teachers had unsatisfactory preparation and that 46% 
of the rural teachers had very little professional training. 
In the cities about 96% of the elementary teachers have 
had some professional preparation. The survey shows 



30 STAT^ MAINTE:NANCt: 01^ TKACHl^RS IN TRAINING 

that 65% of the rural teachers had taken no professional 
courses within five years, and that 58.3% of the elemen- 
tary teachers received less than $900.00. 

In Table III 14% of the high school teachers are 
shown to fall short of standard preparation for their 
work. A large percentage of the high school teachers 
are normal school graduates. When the data are com- 
pared for ten years* it is evident that the normal school 
graduates and the college or university graduates have 
almost uniformly maintained the same ratio to the entire 
number of teachers employed. In fact, since 191 7, there 
has been a gradual decrease in the percentage of each 
group. 

Table V on average salaries shows that the normal 
school graduate is preferred in the elementary schools to 
the college graduate so far as the salary received can 
show it, while the reverse is true in the high schools. 

Several facts relating to teacher-shortage are disclosed 
by this survey that work to the disadvantage of the coun- 
try school. 

1. The cities employ normal school and college gradu- 
ates to the extent of 73% of their grade teachers, the rural 
districts only 37%. 

2. The cities pay teachers with experience more than 
twice the average salary of rural teachers without experi- 
ence. 

3. The cities pay inexperienced elementary teachers 
an average of $977.68, which is $144.00 more than rural 
teachers with many years of experience receive. 

During 1919-20 Montana was short 22^] teachers and 
in the fall of 1920 there was a shortage of 513 teachers in 
35 counties and because of the conditions named above 
the lack was almost exclusively in the rural sections. 



4) See Table IV, p. 33. 



A SURVE;y 0^ CONDITIONS 



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35 



''During- the beautiful fall months when country children 
can reach the school building without trudging through 
deep snows or mud, many schools have remained closed 
for want of teachers."^ 

In a rich state like Montana something should be done 
to improve the membership of the teaching population. 
The preparation of these teachers must be greatly ex- 
tended in order to merit adequate salaries. The em- 
phasis in an effective policy must be placed upon the wel- 
fare of future generations as represented by the children. 

TIIK NATIONAI, SITUATION WITH REFERENCE TO 
TEACHER SHORTAGE 

The National Education Association published in its 
Bulletin for November, 1920, the results of a nation-wide 
inquiry on the teacher situation. Table VI shows that 
the lack of teachers had not at that time disappeared, and 
that licenses were issued in large numbers to teachers 
who were below standard for the year 1920-21. 

Teacher-shortage is not a new problem. The economic 
situation of 1918-20 only served to make it more acute. 
Many studies of large groups of teachers have shown how 
much remains to be done by state authority in order to 
place a trained teacher in every school. In 1911 the me- 
dian number of years of education beyond the elementary 
school was found to be four years and one-fourth of all 
teachers in rural schools had two years or less. In ex- 
perience, the median tenure was two years in the rural 
schools while 25% had taught but one year.^^ These 
figures were based upon data from seventeen states. 

Several state surveys were published within ten years 
after the above quoted study was made, and each one con- 



9) state Superintendent's Report, 1920, p. 37. 

11) Coffman, The Social Composition of the Teaching Population, 
Tables XII, XVIII. 



36 STATE MAINTENANCE OE TEACHERS IN TRAINING 



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38 state: mainte:nance: of teachers in training 

tributed its group of facts to show the necessity for legis- 
lation to relieve a situation which has been threatening 
the success of the public schools, especially in the rural 
sections. 

QUOTATIONS FROM SURVEYS 

Ohio (State Survey Report, 1914)12 

Of 8,286 teachers attending institutes in 1913, 15.4% were begin- 
ners and 71.4% of the beginners had no professional training 
whatever. 47.5% of 527 rural teachers actually surveyed had no 
professional preparation. 7,000 new teachers are needed annually 
and only 10% of that number are trained by existing institutions. 
Wisconsin (Survey of Normal Schools, 1914)^^ 

Of the 6,639 one-room rural school teachers, 48% had no pro- 
fessional training. 522 had not finished a four-year high school 
course, and 1,864 were teaching their first year. 

Maryland (Public Education in Maryland, 1915)14 

Flexner and Bachman say that 10% of the elementary teachers 
are well trained and that 33 1/3% are untrained. 
North Dakota (Survey of Higher Educational Institutions)^^ 

The experience of 1,156 out of 4,981 teachers in 1916 was less 
than one year. Less than 5% of the teachers in rural schools have 
had adequate training, i. e., two years of training beyond the four- 
year high school course, although more than four-fifths of the 
children of the state live in the open country. The average age 
of the rural teacher is 23 with an experience of two years, while 
the city teachers average 28 years and have had 5.6 years of 
experience. 
Alabama (U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 41, 1919)16 

According to the Alabama Survey, 63% of the rural and village 
teachers report no professional training whatever. 16% have 
entered their work from the elementary school, through examina- 
tion. Of 3,648 rural and village teachers reporting, 17.6% are 
teaching their first year. 

Virginia (Survey Report, 1919)17 

In eighteen typical counties, 737% of the white teachers in 
elementary schools had no training beyond the high school course 

12) Ohio State School Survey Report, 1914, Chapter VI, p. 63ff. 

13) Farmer, Conditions and Needs of Wisconsin Normal Schools, 

1914, pp. 574-576. 

14) Public Education in Maryland, 1915, p. 60. 

15) Survey of Higher Educational Institutions, U. S. Bureau of 

Education. Bulletin No. 27, 1916, pp. 80, 197. 

16) Alabama Survey, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 

41, 1919, pp. 347 and 349. 

17) Inglis and others, The Public Schools of Virginia, 1919, pp. 
334. 335. 



A SURVKY OF CONDITIONS 39 

and more than half of those had only two years or less of high 
school training. The preparation of the colored teachers in the 
same counties was even more defective. For the whole state 
52% had less than a complete high school course as a preliminary 
training. More than 20% of both white and colored teachers 
were beginners. 

Delaware (General Education Board, 1919)18 

In 1918-19, 70% of the teachers had no training beyond the four- 
year high school course and 259<' were teaching their first year. 
24.2% had completed a normal course or had attended college. 

Pennsylvania (Study by LeRoy King for U. S. Bureau of 
Education, 1920)19 

Of the teachers under the supervision of the county superin- 
tendents 23% were without experience. 25% of the teachers of 
one-room schools were without any training in high school. At 
least "^6% of these teachers have entered upon their work with- 
out professional training in state normal schools, by the examina- 
tion route. 52% of these rural teachers hold the lowest possible 
type of certificate in order to qualify as a teacher in the state. 

These data show that the states annually employ be- 
ginners totaling from 10% to 25% of their teaching force 
and that the preparation of these recruits is very inade- 
quate. The immediate problem for the states to face is 
how to supply the lack of trained teachers by means of 
existing plans and institutions and what new departures 
to make and additional facilities to create in order to sup- 
plement former efforts. The progress that state systems 
of education have made in adjusting themselves to new 
situations in the past is the basis for the faith that this 
vital need will be satisfied. 

TENURE RELATED TO TRAINING 

Another fact is apparent in these studies of the teach- 
ing service. Teaching has been a temporary occupation. 
It has been most attractive to certain groups of immature 
people in the country districts, because of the lack of any 
requirement for institutional preparation for entering the 
work, and because the employment served to render them 

18) Public Education in Delaware, General Education Board, 

1919, p. 103. 

19) LeRoy King-, University of Pa. Bulletin, Schoolmen's Week 

Proceedings, 1920, p. 79ff. 



40 STAT^ maintenance: O^ TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

self-sustaining for a few years during which the imme- 
diate rewards in proportion to the Httle or no investment 
in preparation for the work were greater than in other 
available occupations. Besides the public has, unfor- 
tunately, been more tolerant toward immaturity and lack 
of preparation in teaching than toward the same faults 
in other occupations. "In the efficiency of lawyers, physi- 
cians, and engineers the public, of course, has a vital in- 
terest ; but its interest in the efficiency of its public school 
teachers is even more fundamental, for here not only does 
inefficiency affect a wide circle of relatively helpless hu- 
manity, but it may remain undetected for months or for 
years. "2^ The injury to the children due to poor prepar- 
ation on the part of teachers is compounded by the brief 
terms and the consequently frequent change of teachers. 
Insufficient training and short tenure are closely linked. 

The inefficient teacher easily becomes dissatisfied on 
account of the difficulties of the task and in most cases 
seeks the earliest opportunity to change his work or his 
social position. The school authorities are often unable 
to secure any one with better training and the children 
must go through the same type of experience with a dif- 
ferent person. Unfortunately when the supply of teach- 
ers is so deficient, some persons will be retained in the 
schools much longer than their training or ability would 
warrant, and contrary to their own inclination to leave. 
Under the pressure of conditions produced by the war 
many low-grade teachers returned to the schools to the 
detriment of the service. 

On the other hand, training leads to the satisfaction of 
a task well done. It looks towards permanence from the 
beginning. It means a career ; and the effect of training 
upon tenure alone justifies the investment which a state 

20) Wm. C. Bagley, "A Platform of Service." N. E. A. Journal 
January, 1921. 



A SURVl^Y OF CONDITIONS 4I 

makes in the preparation of teachers. In Wisconsin the 
average length of service of those teachers who attended 
or graduated from the normal schools was 8.4 years, 
while the average service of all the teachers in the state 
as given by the State Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion was between three and four years. ^^ In the San 
Francisco Survey of 1917, the average experience of all 
the principals and elementary teachers was found to be 
18.2 years; the average experience for the high schools 
was found to be 16.6 years. Fifty-five per cent, of all 
the teachers possessed college or normal school training. 
The San Antonio Survey in 191 5 gave a table of the ex- 
perience of the teachers of twenty-seven cities and the 
median was 9.2 years. ^^ The median training of twenty- 
two cities of this table was found to be 5.4 years beyond 
the elementary school. ^^ For these cities the Pearson 
co-efficient of correlation of training and experience is 
.303. Of course with so few cities the P. E. is relatively 
large, but the relation is positive and significant. In 1920 
the correlation of experience and training for 81 cities 
whose population varied from 30,000 to 100,000 was .224 
with P. E. of .072.24 More than 46% of the elementary 
teachers and principals of St. Louis have taught more 
than ten years. ^^ More than 41% of the elementary and 
86% of the high school teachers have received training 
equivalent to normal school or college graduation. ^^ 

It is in the cities, where the trained teachers work, that 
the basis of a true profession of teaching exists. Such 
figures as these from the city surveys cannot be dupli- 

21) Farmer, Survey of Wisconsin Normal Schools, 1914, p. 58. 

22) San Antonio Survey, p. 205, 1915. 

23) San Antonio Survey, p. 205, 1915. 

24) J. R. McGaug-hy, Unpublished study of the data secured for 
National Committee for Chamber of Commerce Cooperation 
with Public Schools, 1921. 

25) St. Louis Survey, p. 9G. 1917. 

26) Carnegie Foundation Report, Bulletin No. 14, 1920, pp. 369, 
378. 



42 STAT^ maintenance: 01^ TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

cated in the rural sections where the untrained and im- 
mature teachers are in the majority-^"^ Training means 
improvement with experience and growth in service ; 
on the other hand, a long tenure for an untrained teacher 
may involve a mechanical routine of very poor work. The 
high annual turnover in the personnel of the teaching 
service is one of its greatest liabilities. 

The state's problem, though, is to provide trained 
teachers so that immaturity and inexperience may be less 
characteristic of the teaching population. For if the 
tenure of trained teachers is longer than that of the un- 
trained, both of these injurious factors would be greatly 
reduced through adecjuate provisions for training. From 
1839 to 1850, inclusive, seven normal schools in the United 
States had been organized by the states to provide trained 
teachers for the public schools. By 1870 this number had 
been increased to seventy-five. All states now make 
appropriations which aim to place competent persons in 
charge of the schools. The data given earlier in this 
chapter measure the failure of the states in this important 
activity. 

It would be difficult to overestimate the influence of the 
normal schools in the development of the profession in 
America. Often handicapped by inadequate financial sup- 
port, the normal schools have been responsible for send- 
ing into the elementary schools the best trained teachers 
which the latter have received. It has been the obligation 
and privilege of the normal schools to foster and promote 
the ideal of professional training, though their product 
has been submerged in most states by the vast majority of 
immature and relatively untrained teachers. The latter 
have predominated in the rural schools and their presence 

27) N. E. A. Emergency Commission Series No. 4, p. 4. 



A SURVIvY OT^ CONDITIONS 43 

constitutes the greatest menace to the economic independ- 
ence of the profession. 

KDUCATIONAI, DH:V£:L0PME:NT 187O-I918 

Table VII shows the development of the public school 
system in the United States as compared with the growth 
in population and wealth. It shows, too, the enrollments 
of normal schools, high schools and colleges. The Table 
uses 1890 as the basis of comparison. Gains have been 
made in the enrollment in normal schools and in the num- 
ber of graduates. The condition of the schools with ref- 
erence to trained teachers today has been described. The 
preparation of the teachers of 1870 with the meager nor- 
mal school courses of that time and the lack of public 
high schools, can only be imagined. The wonderful de- 
velopment in national wealth in the past decade indicates 
that the resources of the nation will be adequate for its 
educational needs when these are once defined and under- 
stood. 

The war years have given the normal schools at least a 
temporary check in their efforts to gain on the situation. 
The fact which this table clearly shows is that the enroll- 
ment in high schools, colleges and universities is gaining 
much more rapidly than in normal schools. When the 
latter were organized, they offered secondary education 
to large numbers. Now there is a tendency for students 
to go from the pubic high schools to the colleges and uni- 
versities directly, leaving the normal schools with unused 
facilities though the need for trained teachers was never 
greater. Something must be done if the schools are to 
be supplied with prepared teachers, and to lead a proper 
share of the capable students, who are now overcrowding 
the colleges, into these state institutions which prepare 
for so important a branch of the public service. 



state: MAINT^NANCB: 01^ TKACHEIRS IN TRAINING 




A STTRVKY OF CONDITIONS 



45 






Yi . ■ ^ Tr I > » 4 i<i w 



H9«»M 



l(,<k«M> 



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7iofi< 



tf^OOC^ 



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fg»> itfo 1100 /y/o /y/]r 



46 STATIC maintenance: OT^ TKACHKRS IN TRAINING 

The normal schools encountered the same tendencies 
and influences that made it so difficult to secure and hold 
competent teachers in the public schools. The same rea- 
sons have reduced the attendance in these institutions 
from what it was before the United States entered the 
war ; and both the quantity and quality of the output have 
been seriously affected. About 18,000 graduates, as a 
maximum annual product, have gone out from the stand- 
ard teacher-training schools of the country. 

A most conservative estimate of the annual needs of 
the schools due to growth of population, expansion of 
school activities, and replacements needed because of 
death and resignation, is from 90,000 to 100,000,^^ and 
during the war period it was much larger. Even if all the 
beginning teachers who have had any special professional 
training in normal schools, high schools, or summer 
schools, be considered as qualified for their work, there 
still remains a large group of teachers who begin their 
work each year without any guaranty of success, many of 
whom have not even had any instruction in high school.^* 

The state has an obligation to define the educational 
and professional qualifications of those who desire to 
teach in the public schools. But it must do more than this. 
It must provide opportunities for this training in its nor- 
mal schools, colleges of education, and universities. The 
average annual need for teachers in a state can be deter- 
mined from reports ; and, unless an equal supply is pro- 
duced, the schools must remain closed or else be taught by 
persons of inferior preparation. The economic necessi- 
ties of these unprepared teachers make an appeal to their 
parents and to school directors because the latter do not 



33) H. W. Foght, Preparation of Rural Teachers, N, E. A. Pro- 
ceeding's, 1915, p. 102. 

34) David Felmley, National Crisis in Education, U. S. Bureau 
of Education, Bulletin No. 29, 1920, p. 25. 



A SURVEY 01^ CONDITIONS 47 

understand the aims and purposes of the school as an in- 
stitution. The school exists primarily for the benefit of 
the children who attend it; and anything which thwarts 
this purpose directly or indirectly should demand the 
immediate attention of the state. 

The diminished attendance at normal schools during 
the years 1917-20, with few exceptions, makes it evident 
that it will now be more difiicult than ever before to se- 
cure an adequate supply of trained teachers from that 
source. In the normal schools of New York State after 
considerable effort and with a generous salary law enacted, 
an increase of 328 students or approximately 17% over 
the previous year's enrollment was noted for the year 
1920-21. In one of these schools where an intensive 
campaign for recruits was conducted, the entering class 
w^as only one-third of that entering in 1917. Data ob- 
tained from seven of the Pennsylvania Normal Schools 
showed that they graduated only two-thirds as many 
teachers in 1920 as in 191 7. ''One hundred and ninety 
state, county, city and private normal schools reported 
11,503 fewer students than they had the year previous to 
the war. The schools reporting represent 60% of the 
total normal schools, and on this basis it is estimated that 
there were 19,000 fewer normal students and 7,000 fewer 
graduates from normal schools in 1920. Teachers' train- 
ing courses in college show the same falling off, and the 
loss of students in some state normal schools indicates a 
shrinkage in students of 20, 30, and as high as 50 per 
cent."^^ The most significant fact was that at the same 
time the colleges and universities were crowded with 
the largest enrollment in their history. 

The differences in drawing power of institutions which 
require the same preliminary preparation for entrance 

35) Report of Commissioner of Education for year ended June 
30, 1920. 



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A SURVEY 0^ CONDITIONS 



49 



TABLE IX. 



INCREASE IN UNIVERSITY ENROLLMENT IN FIVE YEARS, 
I9IS-I92038 



California 

Chicago 

Cincinnati 

Columbia 

Cornell 

Harvard 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Johns Hopkins 

Kansas 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Nebraska 

Nev^ York 

Northwestern 

Ohio State 

Pennsylvania 

Pittsburgh 

Stanford 

Texas 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Washington 

Yale 

Total 



ember i, 1915 


November i, 1920 


10,555 


16,379 


7,968 


11,394 


2,525 


3.523 


11,888 


23,793 


6,351 


7.349 


5.698 


7,786 


6,150 


9.652 


2,347 


3,585 


3,138 


3,585 


1.586 


3,203 


2,806 


4.036 


6,684 


10,158 


5.376 


9.565 


3.356 


5.730 


6,656 


10,522 


4.408 


7.567 


5.451 


7,799 


7,404 


10,579 


3,569 


5.904 


2,061 


3.134 


3,572 


5.152 


1,008 


3.409 


6,810 


9.506 


1,264 


2,502 


3.303 


3.896 


121,933 


191,376 


Gain 


69443=56+% 



38) School and Society, January 29, 1921, p. 121. 



50 state: maintenance of teachers in training 

indicate that something needs to be done by the state and 
by society if the demand for prepared teachers is to be 
satisfied. The impression is prevalent that students of 
superior ability are avoiding the normal schools in order 
to attend the institutions that apparently ofifer greater 
promise in economic outlook and a greater variety of 
professional choice. Several tests have been made to de- 
termine the relative ability of students in the two types of 
institutions. Table X shows the results of the intelligence 
test prepared by the Carnegie School of Technology, 
Pittsburgh, Pa., and given to the freshmen in eleven col- 
leges and seven normal schools in Pennsylvania in 191 9. 
The median difference of 13 in favor of the college stu- 
dents is suggestive. 

Table XI shows the results obtained from applying the 
Army Alpha test to the students in several normal schools 
and universities. Measured by the army standards both 
groups are superior but a difference of 16.4 in the median 
score in favor of the college group confirms the notion 
that the colleges and universities are drawing the best 
ability. This difference is equivalent to six or seven 
months of mental age on the Stanford-Binet scale. The 
results of these tests in typical and widely scattered insti- 
tutions is an evidence of the need for additional induce- 
ments in order to attract ability of the highest grade into 
the teaching profession. 

In attempting to provide a trained teacher for every 
school, it is important to inquire what kind of people are 
choosing the teaching profession. What ability do those 
possess who decide to teach? What economic conditions 
surround them? What can they afford in the nature of 
an extensive preparation for teaching? These questions 
were answered in 191 1 by Coffman's Study of the Social 
Composition of the Teaching Population. He found that 



A SURVIiY O^ CONDITIONS 



51 



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/bO 



110 



90 



HO 




LOWEST SCORE UwtK(JU/»(n^l.E MEDIAE ilPPfcKjEllMinit*//lW«rSC0R6 



//C0ULE6£S 



q M>RN\f^iS^HO0^'^'-'' 



52 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 



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A SURVEY 01^ CONDITIONS 



53 



TABLE XI. COMPARISON OF ABIIJTY 01^ FRESHMEN IN NORMAL 

SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES AS MEASURED BY 

THE ARMY ALPHA TESTS. 





Army Rating. 






A 
B 

C— 

c 
c— 

D 
D— 


135-212 

105-134 

75-104 

45- 74 

25- 44 

15- 24 

0- 14 






Very Superior 
Superior 
High Average 
Average 
Low Average 
Inferior 
Very Inferior 




Normal Schools 




Cases 




Med 


ian Score 


1. Cape Girardeau, 

2. Greeley, Col. 

3. Bloomsburg, Pa. 

4. Mankato, Minn. 


Mo. 

(2d year) 

3 


448 

102 

138 

39 

727 






1 13-6 
116.6 
113.19 
11375 


All Normal Student 


1 136 


Universities 
Yale 
Illinois 
Purdue 

Southern Metho( 
Ohio State 
Arkansas 
Dickinson 


iist 




2 


406 
489 
588 
128 
545 
52 
72 




159 
147 
124 
127 
130 
114 
141 


University Freshmen 


4 


280 


130 



54 STATD MAINTKNANCK O^ TiCAClIlJRS IN TRAINING 






G»?EEUEy, COL. 

A^^//^^ro,AM/v^'. ' 
yALE 

PURDUE 
SOUTHERN /V\.E 






no 



/60 



VN\yERZir\t.% 



A\x. NoROhtw^ srym^itr^ 






1 1 Li 

mqs 

IS<f 

/30 
//V 

f/3.6 
130 



A surve:y of conditions 55 

the typical teacher comes from a home whose annual in- 
come was approximately $800.00 which supported a family 
of six or seven members.^^ How can prospective teachers 
with such a background pay the cost of adequate training? 
The cost of preparation has increased in proportion to the 
increase in the cost of living while salaries have advanced 
in a smaller degree. 

These facts have combined to prevent prospective teach- 
ers from securing the necessary preparation for their work 
so that the children are suffering the consequences of 
economic and social evils from which they should be pro- 
tected. Is it not time that an indifferent and careless 
policy in the matter of teacher training be abandoned? 

COST OF NORMAL TRAINING 

Late in the school year 1919-20, typical normal schools 
were selected in New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, 
Texas, Wisconsin, Missouri, Illinois and New Jersey in 
order to secure from the students themselves an estimate 
of expenses covering room, board, laundry, clothing, trav- 
eling expenses, and fees, but no other personal incidentals. 
The principal was requested to select twenty seniors at 
random in order to secure representative estimates. One 
hundred sixty-five reports reveal the fact that expenses 
range from $300.00 to $1000 and that the general aver- 
average is $470.43. This means an investment of over 
$900.00 in a two-year course or $1800.00 in a four-year 
course. This expense will vary somewhat with changing 
prices but it is a fair record of the extreme conditions 
which prevailed in the year in which the data were col- 
lected. 

As has been shown these costs are prohibitive for 
teachers in the rural schools where salaries are lowest and 



40) Contributions to Education, Columbia University, No. 41, 
p. 80. 



56 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

school terms the shortest. The vital problem is to get a 
superior training for these thousands of rural teachers in 
order that they may be worthy of a salary commensurate 
with the importance of the task they are willing to attempt. 
Can America not profit by the experience of those coun- 
tries of the world where this difficulty has been overcome 
to the extent that a large percentage of their teacher^: are 
genuine professionally trained men and women.^^ 

ADDlTlONAIv AID DESIRABLE 

Everything that any state has done financially to pro- 
mote the training of teachers may be considered in the 
nature of a subsidy to the profession. The important 
question is whether the state can afford to restrict its 
activity in rendering aid to prospective teachers before 
every school enjoys the privilege of employing a trained 
teacher. It is good business to add to the capital in- 
vestment in order to increase the dividends ; it is wise 
public policy to prevent ignorance and inefficiency and to 
provide equal opportunity to all the children of the state. 
In order to have a trained teacher in every school, more 
recruits must be secured for the profession of teaching, 
more training must be furnished before the difficult task 
is undertaken, and teachers must be paid a living wage 
for their work. These desirable goals are within the 
scope of the state's activities and unless the state acts 
to protect and promote its own system of free schools, 
there is little hope for improvement. Even so long ago as 
1907, J. M. Green, principal of the Trenton Normal 
School said : "I have no fault with the high standards for 
teaching. I hail and welcome them, but I believe if they 
are maintained, education must thoroughly promulgate its 
economic requirements. These must be acknowledged 
and met by the people, both by increasing salaries and by 



41) See New South Wales, Japan, Germany, Denmark, Chapter 
III. 



A surve:y of conditions 57 

further decreasing the cost of higher education for teach- 
ers by additional state aid/'^^ 

As an indication of the growing interest in this phase 
of the problem, it is pertinent to state that at the meeting 
of the /\ssociation of iVcademic Principals of New York 
State in December, 1919, a resolution was adopted urging 
additional state subsidies for prospective teachers. Sec- 
tion XII of the Sterling-Towner Bill now before Con- 
gress, proposes the appropriation of $15,000,000 ''to en- 
courage the states in the preparation of teachers for pub- 
lic school service, particularly in rural schools, to provide 
and extend facilities for the improvement of prospective 
teachers, and to provide an increased number of trained 
and competent teachers by encouraging through the es- 
tablishment of schohirsJiips and othcrzvisc, a greater num- 
ber of talented young* people to make adequate preparation 
for public school service." 

At the National Citizens Conference on Education held 
in Washington, D. C, May, 1920, it was resolved that 
''since the teachers of America come so largely from 
homes that are economically unable to bear the expenses 
of the education of their sons and daughters, it may be 
necessary, in order to secure the best quality of candidates 
for the teaching profession, that the living expenses of 
teachers in training zvill need to he, met by the state, either 
through scholarships or by means of a loan which may be 
paid in part or entirely by actual service, in teaching fol- 
lowing graduation. "^^ 

There is no doubt that one of the most serious defects 
in the educational system today is the incompetent teacher. 
If this problem were solved the conditions in more than 
50% of the schools would be radically improved, and the 

42) N. E. A. Proceedings, 1907, p. 370. 

43) U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 29, 1920, p. 131; 
italics mine. 



58 STATK maintenance: OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

question as to what is the matter with pubHc education 
could no longer be asked with the same implications and 
emphasis. 

SUMMARY 

1. The public school has been able to adjust itself to 
new demands and conditions. A remarkable world-wide 
state of unrest and change as a result of the war has 
already influenced education and will continue to do so. 

2. A study of the members of the teaching service in 
typical states shows that a large percentage of the teach- 
ers, especially in the rural districts, are inadequately pre- 
pared for the duties of the profession. 

3. The statistics of the enrollment in high schools, 
colleges and universities, and normal schools show that 
the profession of teaching is not attracting a sufficient 
number of recruits. It is significant that the numbers 
seeking higher education for other vocations are rapidly 
increasing. 

4. Inadequate attendance in normal schools is also 
accompanied by the admission of students of somewhat 
inferior ability as compared with those entering universi- 
ties and colleges. 

5. The cost of normal school education is too great 
compared with the salaries of many rural teachers to 
justify the expense of adequate preparation. 

6. Educational organizations are suggesting in reso- 
lutions and proposed legislation additional state assistance 
to prospective teachers as one of the potent remedies for 
the situation. 



Chapter III 

PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 

THROUGH FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE^ 

One of the essential activities of state educational ad- 
ministration is that which relates to the preparation of 
teachers. An annual supply of new teachers is necessary 
to fill the vacancies in io% to 30% of the schools, as 
shown in the representative states described in Chapter I. 
Unless the state concerns itself with the preparation of 
these required teachers, what agency will? The alterna- 
tive presented is to fill up these schools with the candidates 
who apply, allowing their preparation to be determined 
by chance factors. The interests of the children are so 
vital that the latter policy is unwarranted in a responsible 
government. 

In their efforts to meet the demand for better teachers, 
the states have had a varying experience. To supply the 
shortage of teachers which some states have felt more 
keenly than others, several experiments to aid financially 
in the preparation of teachers have been made. What 
progress has been made by any state in this endeavor? 
What are the conditions in state systems of education that 
should be modified in order to provide competent teach- 
ers for every child? These are questions that need to be 
answered before any suggestions can be made, based 
upon either theory or practice. 

A. IN THE UNITED STATES 

Free schools on both the elementary and secondary 
levels are now so nearly universal that it is difficult to 
realize that this is comparatively a recent achievement. 



1) See Appendix B. 

59 



6o STATK maintenance: 01^ TKACIIKKS IN TRAINING 

It is now possible for thousands of American youth to 
pursue their studies through the university practically 
without personal charge for tuition. State maintained 
institutions generally are free to the residents of that 
state and in harmony with that policy the state normal 
schools make no charge for instruction. In this respect 
the prospective teacher has no advantage from the state 
over individuals preparing for many other occupations. 
There is but slight opposition to this poHcy of offering 
the widest possible range of training at public expense, 
but the teacher will be an employee of the state and, there- 
fore, the interest of the state in the efficacy of his train- 
ing is greater than it is in training for many other fields 
of activity. 

Transportation is one of the costly items for prospec- 
tive teachers in states where the distances are great and 
the institutions few. Very little has been done by the 
states in striving to meet this situation. In Wyoming 
railroad fares in excess of $10.00 are paid by the state 
to the students in the teacher-training department of the 
State University. Montana refunds all transportation in 
excess of $5.00. New Mexico pays all above $3.00 round 
trip and Rhode Island makes an appropriation to cover 
all transportation. 

In fifteen states, free textbooks are supplied to the stu- 
dents who are preparing to teach. ^ In a few cases books 
may be rented at a low charge and in New Hampshire 
and Massachusetts supplies are furnished. In many 
states individual schools are found which maintain loan 
funds for emergency cases among the students. These 
funds are usually maintained by gifts from the classes, by 
contributions from alumni and faculty, or by private 
philanthropy. In the Louisiana State Normal School at 

2) See Appendix A. 



PI.ANS FOR RJ^CRUITING THE) PROFl^SSlON 6l 

Natchitoches, money available for this purpose amounts to 
$20,000.00 in several funds. In Massachusetts, the legis- 
ture appropriates $4,000.00 per year which may be ap- 
plied to the transportation of needy students, $30.00 or 
$40.00 to each. In many schools where no such fund 
exists, special cases are taken care of by members of the 
faculty or by local organizations. Many worthy young 
people who would otherwise have been lost to the pro- 
fession, have thus been aided. 

Several states have attempted the experiment of offer- 
ing scholarships in order to secure a sufficient supply of 
teachers. In Connecticut in addition to free tuition, an- 
nual scholarships of $150.00 for each student have been 
available for a number of y^ars, on condition that the 
graduates teach three years in the rural schools. Out 
of 100 scholarships available only sixteen were called for 
in the year 1920-21. The salaries and living conditions in 
the country were so unattractive that the experiment was 
almost nullified. It has been proposed that this scholar- 
ship be raised to $300.00 to make it effective. Louisiana 
has a plan by which each police jury of the state and each 
ward of the city of New Orleans may designate one fe- 
male student to the normal school, whose support, not 
exceeding $250.00 per year, may be charged against the 
police jury or ward. The beneficiaries are appointed on 
the basis of competitive examinations from among needy 
persons. Less than 50% of the districts are represented, 
— largely, no doubt, because of the stigma of poverty that 
attaches to the subsidy. 

In 1920 the State Education Department of Delaware 
selected certain students from those desiring teacher- 
training work and granted them scholarships of $150.00 
per year. As a modification of this plan the department 
suggests that all expenses of those qualified to train for 



b2 STATE MAINTKNANCE OP TKACHKRS IN TRAINING 

elementary work be paid. The law also allows liberal 
support for the teachers who take work in summer schools 
to improve their efficiency in service. 

In Maryland the legislature of 1920 so increased the 
appropriation to the normal schools that the net cost of 
board, laundry, books, tuition, and other necessary items 
to each student was only $100.00 a year. Any high 
school graduate who pledged two years' service was ad- 
mitted on these terms. The governor has assented to the 
policy of relieving all teacher-training students entirely 
from the costs of maintenance and the State Board of 
Education will have the opportunity to work out the de- 
tails in future legislation. The county boards of educa- 
tion have been required by law for years to pay $25.00 to 
any teacher who attends summer school. 

The Normal Board of Regents in Texas ofifers scholar- 
ships to the honor students among the boys and among 
the girls in each fully affiliated high school of the state. 
This scholarship exempts the students from paying fees 
and as they may also receive scholarships in the colleges 
and state university, very few enter the normal schools 
on this basis. At Huntsville, Texas, only five honor stu- 
dents were enrolled in 1919-20 and four in 1920-21. A 
scholarship worth $100.00 is open for students from ju- 
nior and senior colleges. Several scholarships worth 
$200.00 or $250.00 are offered by alumni and other indi- 
viduals. The experience in Texas and in other states shows 
that students prefer to go to college rather than to normal 
schools when the scholarships are equal or when the 
larger subsidy is granted for college attendance. 

In order to make a special provision for rural teachers 
in New Mexico, there are chosen annually fifty teachers 
who possess ability to read and write both English and 
Spanish, who have taught for ten months on a third-grade 



PI.ANS FOR RE:crUITING THE; PROFESSION 63 

certificate, and who are between eighteen and twenty-five 
years of age. These teachers pledge themselves to teach 
two years in rural districts after completing a prescribed 
one-year course. When they finish the course in the nor- 
mal schools, they receive a second-grade certificate good 
for the two ensuing years. From a special state appro- 
priation $300.00 is paid to the normal school of his choice 
for each teacher, selected for this rural course. This 
grant pays actual and necessary expenses for board, books 
and school supplies, lodging, matriculation and tuition. 
The law provides that the amount allowed to each student 
shall not be less than $20.00 per month for board and 
lodging and that any balance in the fund shall become 
part of the maintenance fund in that institution. This 
plan has several weaknesses. The number is inadequate 
for the whole state and the preliminary training of such 
scholarship students should be graduation from the four- 
year high school course. Principal W. O. Hall, of the 
Silver City Normal School said of these students that 
they were superior in responsibility and in diligence in 
their work though no superiority was noted in its quality. 
New Mexico realized her need for trained teachers and 
began a plan which makes progress possible. Along with 
this state assistance a law has been passed requiring that 
rural school districts should spend not more than $70.00 
a month for a teacher holding a third-grade certificate, 
$90.00 for one holding a second-grade certificate and 
$110.00 for one holding a first-grade certificate.^ Ex- 
State Superintendent Wagner said that salaries for the 
year 1919-20 under this law were advanced 30% or 40% 
Hence state subsidy in this case did not prevent increase 
in salary. 

3) Act to provide for the Training of Teachers for Rural Dis- 
tricts, approved March 18, 1915. 



64 state: maintenance: of teachers in training 

The state of Maine, in order to establish a rural teach- 
ing profession passed an act^ which provided for the 
selection of one hundred rural teachers annually who 
have had a complete normal school training or its 
equivalent and successful teaching experience, and who 
are persons of unusual ability and sympathetic with rural 
life and work. These persons were to attend a special 
course of instruction during the summer months, the ex- 
pense of travel and board being provided by the state. 
They were then to return to the service of the town from 
which they were chosen for at least one year, during 
which they were to act as rural critic and helping teachers. 
At the close of the school year, upon satisfactory evi- 
dence of successful service, the teachers were to receive 
from the state a bonus of 25% of their regular annual 
salary. State Superintendent A. O. Thomas said,^ ''The 
problem is so to motivate the rural phase of education that 
it will attract the brightest minds and the finest person- 
alities of the profession. Dignity, wage and service are 
all essential." An annual appropriation of $20,000.00 is 
devoted to this work. To accomplish the purpose indi- 
cated, the state decided to pay for additional training 
and to pay for the superior service rendered. 

The need for expert teachers of trade, industrial, and 
technical subjects in the public vocational schools led the 
state of New York to pass a law in 1919,^ providing an- 
nually for twenty-five scholarships at the Buffalo State 
Normal School in a one-year industrial teacher-training 
course. Persons completing the course are licensed for 
life to teach their special trade, industrial, or technical 
occupation. The law provides that persons chosen for 



4) An Act to provide for the Training- of Rural Teachers, Chap- 

ter 51, P. L. 1919. 

5) Circular letter: Special Training for Rural Teachers, May 

15, 1919. 

6) Section 835 New Yorlc Education Law, 1919. 



PLANS FOR RI^CRUITING THK PROF'ESSION 65 

these scholarships shall receive $1500,00 if they are with- 
out dependents, or $2000.00 with dependents. These 
amounts are paid in ten equal installments. 

The law requires that each of these men must have had 
not less than five years' practical experience in one of the 
thirteen occupations listed. Candidates must be not less 
than twenty-ojie nor more than thirty-six years old. Good 
health, moral character, citizenship, residence in New 
York, and ability to read, write, and speak English were 
additional requirements. Salaries paid in 1920 to such 
teachers in New York ranged from $1800.00 to $3500.00. 
L. A. Wilson, Director of Industrial Education, writes 
that the state has been able to select some very strong 
men for these scholarships.'^ 

This plan shows what a state feels justified in doing 
to fill a serious need in a definite department of the work. 
It also shows that scholarships and relatively high sal- 
aries after the training are not inconsistent with one an- 
other. When the soldiers, sailors, and marines came 
back to civil life after the war, several states, including 
Oregon, Wisconsin, and New York, passed acts provid- 
ing scholarships in higher institutions. The New York 
law provided for 450 such state scholarships. Each en- 
titled the holder to his tuition, not exceeding $100.00 per 
year, in any college, university, normal school, technical 
or trade school of his selection, located within the state, 
such tuition to be paid by the state, together with an ad- 
ditional sum of $100.00 a year for the maintenance of the 
student while in attendance upon instruction.^ Thirty 
thousand dollars was appropriated by the legislature to 
carrv out this act. 



7) Personal letter, October 20, 1920. 

8) Section 78, Article 3, Education Law, New York State, 1919. 



66 vSTATK MAINTENANCE 01? TEACHERS IN TRAINING 
B. IN AMERICAN CITIES. 

More than thirty cities reported to the United States 
Bureau of Education in 1918 that they were maintaining 
training schools for teachers to supply at least a part of 
the annual demand. According to a bulletin of the 
United States Bureau of Education in 1914, a number 
of such cities were paying various sums of money to 
these prospective teachers for the time spent in actual 
practice teaching.^ In 1920 in New York City this pay- 
ment was $2.00 a day; in Baltimore $1.50 a day; in Wa- 
tertown, N. Y., it was $3.00 a week. In Akron, Ohio, the 
training school was not getting a sufficient supply of the 
capable high school graduates of the city. The population 
had increased very rapidly, and the Board of Education 
decided to pay the normal school students at the rate of 
$50.00 per month for the two years of training. The 
number of students was limited to the capacity of the 
school and a competitive examination enabled the officials 
to select from the students possessing the best ability. 
Superintendent H. B. Fisher, of Streator, Illinois, wrote^^ 
on October 30, 1920 : ''We are this year trying the experi- 
ment of giving aid amounting to $150.00 a year to a few 
graduates of the local high school who are in attendance 
upon one of the state normal schools. This aid is to be 
given each year for two years. Each recipient of this 
aid, each year, gives one note for $100.00 and another for 
$50.00. For each year that she teaches in the Streator 
schools a note or notes amounting to $100.00 are can- 
celled. No interest is payable until after maturity of the 
note, which is set at a point three years after the com- 
pletion of her normal training." The beginning salary 



9) Bulletin 47, City Training Schools, Frank Manny, 1914, Ap- 
pendix E. U. S. Bureau of Education. 
100 Letter to Carnegie Foundation, N. Y. 



PLANS FOR RE:CRUITING THE: PROFESSION (^y 

of these graduates is $1,000.00 with an annual increase 
of $75.00. 

Cities have done more to encourage teachers to im- 
prove themselves in service than have other school dis- 
tricts, because they have had the best trained and more 
ambitious group of teachers in the past and consequently 
appreciate the value of training, and because they have 
the taxable wealth, and are more likely to receive large 
bequests or benefactions. Indianapolis and Pittsburgh, 
for example, have the Gregg Fund and Frick Fund, re- 
spectively. Teachers in both cities are furnished schol- 
arships at educational institutions in all parts of the coun- 
try. Some of these scholarships have aided teachers to 
make journeys to foreign lands in order to gain various 
advantages for their particular work. In the beginning 
of the administration of the Frick Fund, the commission 
paid the entire expense of the teachers who were sent 
away. Later on it paid two-thirds of their expenses, and 
thus was enabled to send a much larger number of teach- 
ers. It has been found in many cases that the teachers 
who were sent once felt themselves so much benefited by 
their visits that they subsequently undertook additional 
training at their own expense. ^^ 

TABI.^ Xn. HENRY C. FRICK EDUCATIONAI, COMMISSION, 
PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA. 

Summary of Aid to Teachers 

Number of teachers who have received scholarships 151 1 

Number of teachers v^ho have received training in Social 
Service work 3i9 

Number of teachers who have received training in Ameri- 
canization work at the University of Pittsburgh during 
winters of 1918-1919 and 1919-1920 to date 256 

Number of teachers sent to educational conferences and to 

11) Year Book of Phoebe Brashear Club, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1917, 
p. 13. 



68 state: maintenance: of teachers in training 

educational institutions for observation and study of 
methods 30 

Number of teachers benefited by the Hency C. Frick Educa- 
tional Commission fund 2116 

Number of different schools attended by the teachers since 
the establishment of the fund 61 

Until the death of Mr. Frick, this endowment fund 
consisted of the interest upon $500,000.00. In his will 
he left the Educational Commission ten shares of his re- 
siduary estate, which he estimated at $500,000.00 a share. 
The future training of selected groups of Pittsburgh 
teachers has consequently been placed upon a very solid 
foundation. 

Many other cities according to the reports of the city 
superintendents grant permanent increases in salary to 
those teachers who are ambitious enough to attend sum- 
mer school at their own expense. In others a definite 
appropriation of $25.00 or $50.00 is made toward the 
expense of teachers attending summer sessions. 

C. in CANADA. 

In the Province of Quebec in 1920, all Protestant 
teachers in training at Macdonald College received tuitio:i 
free and those who agreed to teach three years in the 
rural schools, received a bonus that covered a consider- 
able part of their boarding and other expenses. At the 
Roman Catholic Normal Schools, the government is also 
providing free scholarships for students who could not 
afford to put themselves through. ^^ j^ British Columbia 
and Ontario the traveling expenses of normal school stu 
dents are paid, while in Ontario only, $1.00 per day is 
paid toward their living expenses if they have promised 
to teach for three years in rural schools. 

In May and June of 1919 a survey of the secondary 
schools in the Province of Alberta was made to ascertain 



12) Personal letter from Superintendent's Office, June 14, 1920. 



PLANS FOR RE:CRUITING THE) PROFb:SSION 69 

the probable enrollment at the normal school in Septem- 
ber.^^ It was found that a number of students were likely 
to be debarred from entering the teaching profession be- 
cause of the increased cost of living away from home, and 
because of the lengthened course. The government then 
adopted the policy of extending its loan scheme, created 
for returned soldiers in 1918, to all persons who wished 
to qualify as teachers and who would promise to teach 
two years in Alberta. The maximum sum loaned to any 
person was $400.00 payable in eight equal instalments. 
Notes bearing 7% interest were drawn up and signed by 
guarantors. In the year 1919-20 approximately $28,000.- 
00 was loaned to students. 

Under this plan an appropriation forms a revolving 
fund and continues to assist in the training of teachers 
indefinitely. It renders aid to those who need it and se- 
cures a group of trained teachers who, without such aid, 
would be compelled to begin remunerative work in other 
occupations. 

D. IN LATIN-AMKRICA.""-^ 

In Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and other. Latin- American 
countries, the great majority of the normal schools are 
on the secondary level and admit pupils at the age of 14, 
after they have finished a six-year or seven-year elemen- 
tary course. These institutions were introduced and fos- 
tered by. the governments and were organized on the 
same plan as are military schools. The pupils are edu- 
cated, clothed, fed, and trained at state expense for a 
specific public service. In return for this aid, the pupil 
contracts with the government, with the consent of par- 
ent or guardian, and furnishes a bond that he will serve 

13) Personal letter, G. Fred McNally, Supervisor of Schools, 
Nov. 17, 1920. 

14) U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 30, 1912, Latin- 
American Universities and Special Schools, E. E. Brandon. 



70 state: MAiNTi:NANCE: OF tkache:rs in training 

as a primary teacher during a fixed number of years 
(varying from four to six) in whatever school assigned, 
or reimburse the state for the expense incurred in his 
training. 

The scholarships are distributed among the administra- 
tive units of the district where the normal school is lo- 
cated and are awarded on competitive examination. In 
the early days all pupils were state scholars. Now young 
people living near the schools take advantage of their 
opportunities. For such the instruction is free or the 
expense is merely nominal. 

So marked is the discrepancy between remuneration in 
commercial and industrial pursuits on the one hand and 
teaching on the other that men have all but disappeared 
from the profession of primary teaching. Where former- 
ly there was a host of candidates for every vacant scholar- 
ship, there are now districts where no men candidates 
apply. These conditions are found under all circum- 
stances and in all continents and can be ascribed in large 
part to the unprecedented industrial advance of the age. 
This experience shows that a subsidy plan will not supply 
teachers if a living wage is not paid to the skilled worker. 

The Province of Entre Rios in Argentina of which 
Parana is the capital founded a special normal school 
for rural teachers ten miles out in the country on a farm 
of 400 hectares^^. Its course was half academic and 
professional, and half agricultural. The purpose of the 
school was to train men for the rural schools where a 
house for the teacher was supplied and four hectares of 
land about every schoolhouse could be used as a garden. 
The products of this garden belonged to the teacher to use 
or sell. The school started with thirty free scholarships 
in 1905 and the number has been increased as the insti- 

15) One hectare equals 10,000 square meters equals 2.471 acres. 



PLANS For recruiting the: profession yi 

tution grew. This combination of subsidized training 
and supplemented salary has worked well in that province. 

These Latin-American Normal Schools have made a 
profession of teaching possible in the elementary schools, 
but the course of study and entrance requirements prevent 
them from supplying the secondary schools with teachers. 
Occasionally the failure of students to fulfill their pledge 
has been winked at and at other times political influence 
has given scholarships to the unworthy, but the general 
success of the plan of subsidizing prospective teachers is 
unquestioned.^^ 

Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, 
and Mexico are some of the countries that have subsi- 
dized the teaching profession with slight variations from 
the methods discussed. 

E. IN Europe:. 

I. Prance. 

France with its centralized system of public education 
affords one of the best illustrations of aid for the pro- 
spective teacher. Each department, corresponding some- 
what to one of our counties, is required to maintain a 
normal school for girls and one for boys. These are 
usually located in the largest towns of the department. 
The expenses of the schools are divided between the de- 
partment and the state. The latter pays all salaries for 
instruction and the living expenses of the pupils, while the 
department provides the buildings and grounds and 
maintains them. Some of the wealthier departments pro- 
vide the pupils with sufficient clothing for the entire 
course. In the summer, excursions are conducted for a 
group of pupils half chosen by the faculty and the other 
half by the pupils. Trips to England, Spain, and Sardinia 



16) E. E. Brandon, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 30, 
1912, Latin-American Universities and Special Schools. 



J2 STAT^ MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

have been taken at the expense of the wealthy depart- 
ments. Entrance to the normal schools is by competitive 
examination. In some departments there have been from 
three to six times as many candidates as there were places. 
In order to be admitted to the examination the individual 
must be in perfect physical condition, must be between 
sixteen and eighteen years of age, and must agree to re- 
main in the public school service for ten years, and hold 
the brevet elementaire.^^ He must give bond signed by a 
responsible relative or guardian agreeing to reimburse the 
state if the contract is broken. 

From one-half to two-thirds of the elementary teachers 
are trained in the normal schools under this plan of sub- 
sidies.^^ The nation maintains two higher normal schools 
for the purpose of training teachers for the many lower 
normal schools. All expense of these schools and the 
pupils was provided by the nation. Some prospective 
teachers of modern languages have been sent abroad to 
get a post-graduate year's training in English or Ger- 
man at government expense. 

The idea of professional education for elementary 
teachers is firmly implanted among the French, but the 
conditions which resulted in the Great War compelled the 
nation to maintain such a large army and navy and to re- 
quire so much military training that education has suf- 
fered financially. 

2. England. 

In England teacher training is a serious problem be- 
cause there are so many different types of schools from 
which prospective teachers come and because the methods 
of preparation vary greatly. In 1912, of the certified 



17) Result of examination based on a standard slightly higher 
than elementary school. 

18) The Public Primary School System of France, Farrington, 
1906. 



rivANS For recruiting tiii^ proi^^kssion 73 

teachers of England only 57.15% were trained. ^^ There 
is a complete system by which persons intending to enter 
the teaching profession receive a free education for the 
purpose. This opportunity means more in England than 
in America because so many of the better schools are 
tuition schools. The usual course is for a student to re- 
main in the secondary school, usually as a bursar until he 
is seventeen, and then to become a student-teacher. Then 
he takes the preliminary examination and proceeds either 
to a training college, where the usual course is two years, 
or to a university training department where the course 
is usually three years and leads to a degree. Opportu- 
nities are provided for additional years of study. Exam- 
inations are used for selecting candidates for these grants 
and examinations are the basis of certification at the end. 
The Board of Education is urging an increase in ''main- 
tenance allowances" by local authorities. Training Col- 
leges in England are furnishing only half of the 9,0(X) 
teachers required annually. Before being appointed as a 
pupil or student-teacher or bursar, a candidate and his 
parent must sign a declaration that he intends to teach, 
and before entering a training college he agrees to reim- 
burse the Board to the extent of the amount paid for his 
education if he does not successfully finish the course 
and serve in an approved school for a specified period. 
The influence of the mother country is very noticeable 
in the various British Colonies in regard to state aid for 
prospective teachers. 

3. Scotland. 

In Scotland teacher-training is well centralized. In 
1905 only 67% of the teachers were certificated and in 
191 2 the number of well prepared teachers had increased 
to 96%. This was the result of the state's taking con- 

19) Report of Board of Education, 1911-12. 



74 STATK maintenance: 01^ TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

trol of the function of training teachers which had been 
formerly managed by the church. The state equipped 
the existing colleges with buildings and apparatus and 
paid the fees of students in the form of grants. ^^ The 
student signs an agreement to complete the course and to 
teach from two to six years, according to the sums which 
have been paid him in fees or allowances. These agree- 
ments are looked upon seriously and the contracts are 
performed. The result of the plan is that boys and girls 
from the artisan class and from the homes of small mer- 
chants are the usual candidates for these stipends. Stu- 
dents who pay their own fees are welcomed but have no 
obligation to serve. About 1,400 new teachers are 
needed in Scotland annually and this is the output of the 
teacher-training institutions. The education department 
does not take any responsibility for employment. Judd 
says, "Subsidies for teachers' salaries in schools of poor 
communities will have to be provided as the counterpart 
of the legal demand that the remotest highland school 
shall employ a teacher whose professional training cannot 
be completed imder most favorable conditions before the 
candidate is twenty-one. "^^ 

4. Germany. 

In Germany before 191 4 it was impossible to enter the 
profession of teaching without having an efficient prepar- 
ation. Each teacher must have satisfied the requirements 
of a high order in each state, and when he was appointed 
he became a member of the service for life or until pen- 
sioned. A teacher in the Volksschiilc was trained in those 
schools for the common people and then he took six years 
of additional preparation. Small fees were charged but 



20) Training- of Teachers in England. Scotland and Germany, 
Judd, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 35, 1914. 

£1) Chas. H. Judd, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 35. 
1914, p. 52. 



PLANS I^OR RE:CRUITING THK PROFESSION 75 

if the student was capable and yet unable to pay for his 
maintenance the state made up the deficit. The student 
promised to pay back all costs of his education if he did 
not complete the course, or if he failed within the first five 
years after passing the first teacher's examination to ac- 
cept the position assigned him in the public school service 
by the provincial or central authorities. On account of 
the tenure of these teachers, the annual turnover was not 
great, and it was possible for the authorities to select 
from the large number of candidates the best ability for 
the places in the Lehr er seminar e. The profession of 
teaching was the only one open to these pupils and the 
stipends made it specially attractive to those coming from 
the poorer homes. 

In Prussia in 191 1, 78.8% of the teachers in the ele- 
mentary schools were men. Eighty per cent, of the Ger- 
man teachers have taught longer than five years, the 
average American tenure. Forty-five per cent, of the male 
teachers in cities have served more than twenty years. 
Fifty-three per cent, of the men in the country schools 
have taught more than ten years. Along with tenure the 
salary paid provided the teacher with a comfortable home, 
education for his children, some opportunity for savings, 
and a pension. The middle 50% of German teachers were 
better paid than the same group in the United States. 
Administrative officers and teachers were more nearly on 
the same salary level. The best feature of all was that 
the country schools were as well taught as those of the 
cities. Most teachers began in the country after they 
were trained. ^2 

5. Portugal. 

In Portugal, by a law which went into efifect in Sep- 
tember, 1919, there were created three normal schools. 

22) Prussian Elementary Schools, Alexander, 1918. 



"jt state: mainte:nance: of te:ache:rs in training 

Others may be established by the government when the 
general assembly of a district rquires them, it being 
necessary always that these corporations assume the re- 
sponsibility for building and equipping the school, leav- 
ing to the state the payment of salaries of teachers and 
other employees. 

There is to be granted a scholarship of 120 cscudos 
($72.00) annually to students who show themselves to be 
in need of this help, preference being given to children of 
primary teachers. The number of students who may take 
advantage of this scholarship in each school year can be 
raised to one hundred for each normal school. A student 
who loses a year through failures or through having been 
suspended, excepting in cases of proved illness, loses his 
right to a scholarship. Scholarship students are obliged 
to teach in the official schools for ten successive years or 
to return the amount received in scholarship grants, un- 
der penalty of losing the right to exercise public functions 
if they fail in one of these obligations. The funds for 
these scholarships are to come from the grants of the 
state to the districts for the expenses of primary educa- 
tion.24 

23) The Preparation of Teachers in Portugal, L. M. Wilson. 
Educational Administration and Supervision, January, 1919, 
pp. 44-46. 

Note : Holland maintained sixty-four normal schools in iQio. 
The state stipplied free books, free tuition and in some cases 
granted a subsidy to pay part of room and board for students 
whose parents do not live near the school. 

Denmark provides one hundred annual scholarships for teach- 
ers at the University of Copenhagen. Norv^^ay maintains six 
public and four private colleges for teachers. Instruction in the 
public colleges is free and there are a number of free scholarships 
in the private colleges. The government makes appropriations 
for teaching scholarships for special teachers and for primary 
teachers. These courses are given at the State University and at 
the Bergen Museum. In Sweden in the higher Training College 
for women tuition is free to all and in addition many poor and 
deserving students receive scholarships from the state. 24 
\.-i) Modern Education in Europe and the Orient, Cloyd, 1917. 



PLANS FOR RECRUITING THE PROFESSION 'J^ 

F. In Asia. 

In the Orient the normal schools provide the best oppor- 
tunity for girls to get a higher education. In Japan girls 
are not admitted to government colleges nor to the univer- 
sities. The fact that the government furnishes an allow- 
ance to cover board, tuition and clothing, as well as other 
incidental expenses, makes a course in preparation for 
teaching so popular that only about 25% of the candidates 
are admitted. Some are admitted who are willing to pay 
their own expenses. The graduates receive certificates and 
those who are men receive an allowance of one year's mili- 
tary service instead of nine compulsory years of service. 
These teachers promise to teach two or three years in 
schools designated by the government and for periods of 
one to four years in schools of their own choice.^^ 

There are higher normal schools for training secondary 
teachers where the terms of admission are equally liberal. 

In China the provinces maintain normal schools for the 
training of elementary teachers where board, tuition, text- 
books, and in some cases uniforms are furnished at state 
expense. "This is one of the best phases of the present 
system of Chinese education."26 The Central Government 
has provided training schools at Peking for the training of 
secondary school teachers. Many teachers are trained in 
the mission schools where as far as possible everything is 
free. 

In India students or teachers undergoing training gen- 
erally receive a stipend or the pay of their post. Be- 
cause of a lack of students these stipends have been raised 
during the last five years. In the central provinces they 
now range from $12.00 to $18.00 a month. Madras also 
grants an allowance for travehng expenses. 



25) Modern Education in Europe and the Orient, Cloyd, 1917. 

26) Information given by Chinese students. 

Teachers' College Contribution to Education, No. 64, P. W. 
Kuo, p. 169. 



78 state: mainte^nance: o? te:ache:rs in training 

The students pledge themselves to teach two years, 
if girls, three years, if boys, and to refund the amount 
of their aid if they fail to render the service. In 
Madras far more apply for $tipends in the normal 
schools than can receive them.^"^ 

G. New Zealand, Australia and South America. 

New Zealand grades its p,rospective teachers with 
reference to previous training and experience. The 
best grades receive grants of $450.00 for board and 
tuition at the university and the others receive $350.00. 
Provision for further improvement in these allow- 
ances is at present under consideration. In 1918, the 
average salary for men was about $1,360.00 and for 
women, $765.00, making no allowance for exchange. ^^ 

Provinces like New South Wales, Victoria, and 
Queensland in Australia give much aid to the prospective 
teachers. The amounts are based upon standing in com- 
petitive examinations. After graduation the teachers are 
members of the state service and are placed where needed. 
Thus the isolated country children receive trained instruc- 
tion, for itinerant teachers visit such children in their 
homes several times a year. In Queensland a zoning 
system of salaries has been inaugurated by which the in- 
convenience of living far from the city is neutralized by 
adding $100.00 per year to the salary for each zone, one 
hundred miles wide.^^ 

Transportation is provided for pupils and prospective 
teachers in New South Wales. In return for these grants 
the students must give bond for two years' service. The 
government supports several post-graduate scholarships 



27) Progress of Education in India, Bureau of Education, India, 
1912-1917. 

28) New Zealand Government Education Report, 1918. 

29) P. P. Claxton, address New York City, 1921. 



pivANS ^OR re:cruiTing thb; proi^kssion 79 

worth $1,500.00 per year.^o Other provinces have similar 
plans. 

In South Africa the plans for prospective teachers are 
like those mentioned in Australia. Scholarships, free 
transportation and maintenance are offered by some 
provinces. ^^ 

Thus around the world in many different countries the 
government has found it necessary to aid prospective 
teachers with various types of subsidies. The supply of 
teachers from this source is only limited by the amount 
of money available. 

SUMMARY. 

1. Financial assistance for prospective teachers is 
found in every state. It varies from free tuition to com- 
plete maintenance during training. 

2. Many foreign countries have secured a portion of 
their teachers by aiding those who need assistance or by 
rewarding those who win a limited number of places 
through competitive examination. 

3. In some countries a larger state investment in 
training often results in the teacher becoming a state 
officer who may be assigned in the school system where 
the greatest need exists. Thus urban and rural edu- 
cational opportunities become more nearly equalized. 

4. Students who receive aid must obligate themselves 
to a definite period of service or else refund the sub- 
sidy to the state. 

5. The number aided is limited by the resources avail- 
able for the purpose rather than by any evils inherent in 
the plans of subsidy. 



30) New South Wales Government Education Report, 1918. 

31) Graduate Students' Reports. 

Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education, Article, South Africa. 



Chapter IV 
METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER OCCUPA- 
TIONS AND PROFESSIONS THROUGH 
FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE 

Teaching is not the only vocation that has received 
financial support from the state and nation. The devel- 
opment of vocational education in the schools is a result of 
the recognition of the principle that one of the important 
functions of training future citizens is to render them 
self-supporting and independent. To create wealth pro- 
motes the economic stability of the state as well as that 
of the individual. Vocational education plans to aid the 
student in discovering his own possibiHties and in mak- 
ing the most of them. Experience has brought the lead- 
ers in industrial education to conclude that short inten- 
sive courses in the schools with definite objectives, are 
better than the more extensive courses which were planned 
formerly. Such short courses enable the individual to 
enter his chosen field of labor sooner and permit him to 
earn while he learns. Promotion comes as he develops 
ability through his service. The state aids in his prep- 
aration and he is soon able to help himself. 

In the vocation of teaching, conditions are very dif- 
ferent. The same need for assistance exists, but it takes 
much longer to get ready to do a piece of professional 
work. 

The state has a more vital interest in the preparation 
of the teacher than in the training of a majority of work- 
ers because the teacher becomes an employee of the sta.e 
and because the raw materials of the school, the children, 
are the hope of the future. The teacher needs a long 
course of preliminary training since teaching differs from 

8i 



82 STATE maintenance: OE TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

the industrial pursuits in that its responsibilities and bur- 
dens cannot be assumed gradually. In short this is an 
outstanding contrast between a profession and a trade. 
If the state should aid individuals to learn trades which 
require such short preliminary training, how much more 
should the state prepare recruits for the difficult art of 
teaching! That is a task which requires a maximum of 
skill from the first day of actual practice. It needs a 
breadth of vision that recognizes the desirable outcomes 
of education. This preparation requires years of study. 

The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
Teaching recommends that normal schools become teach- 
ers' colleges as rapidly as possible in order that prospec- 
tive teachers for the elementary schools may be better 
prepared.^ There is a marked tendency among the nor- 
mal schools of the country to accept this recommendation. 
The normal schools of California and Washington are 
rapidly moving toward the college basis. Kansas, Mis- 
souri, Indiana and Michigan in the Middle West maintain 
several four-year courses, while New York in the East, 
has changed its standard normal school program from a 
two-year to a three-year basis to take effect in 1921-22. 
The more extensive the preparation required for teach- 
ing, the more necessary will adequate state assistance be- 
come in order to make it possible for prospective teach- 
ers to get the training. The movement to extend the 
time for the preparation of teachers is directly opposite 
to that of shortening the time for the preliminary train- 
ing of industrial workers. This difference emphasizes 
the need of aid for teachers during the long period of 
preparation to compensate for the wages that other work- 
ers may earn during their early experiences in industry. 



1) Bulletin No. 14, 1920, Carnegie Foundation for Advance- 
ment of Teaching-. 



METHODS ot" rh:cruiting othkr proi^e:ssions 83 

SCHOOLS IN INDUSTRY 

Corporations have learned the lesson that specific 
training is worth while. Employees have been encouraged 
to attend evening schools, or else to attend classes within 
the institution. The great electric companies, the West- 
inghouse and the General Electric Company are notable 
examples. The Ford works, in Detroit, conduct a large 
educational department. John Wanamaker's department 
stores organize classes in salesmanship and in courtesy and 
hygiene. The great banking institutions train their new 
workers. The purpose of this instruction is to develop 
the types of service demanded, and to make promotion 
possible, and to contribute to contentment and perma- 
nence of tenure. Young people need help to find them- 
selves in industry and in society. The continuation 
schools found in fourteen states are striving to assist 
these young workers to prepare for advancement. The 
individual seldom pays all that his training and education 
cost for a particular occupation or profession. The par- 
ent assists, then the state, then perhaps the endowed edu- 
cational institution, and finally the corporation employing 
the worker. In a comprehensive sense, all of this assist- 
ance is the effort of organized society to perpetuate and 
improve itself by preparing the individual to participate 
in the activities of the group. 

OCCUPATIONS FOR WOMl^N. 

Since most of the public school teachers are women, it is 
fitting to study the situation at present with reference to 
several occupations that are filled almost exclusively by 
women. Throughout a period of training for these voca- 
tions, the workers are paid and the ultimate earning 
capacity is not reduced because of support during the 
learning process. 

The telegraph and telephone companies train girls for 
their work. The Western Union Telegraph Company 



84 STATK MAINTrCNANCE) 01^ TKACIliCRS IN TRAINING 

employed girls in 1913 at $3.50 per week and gave them 
two hours of instruction every day. At the end of the 
first year they could receive instruments at $25.00 a 
month. Skilled operators before the war received $60.00 
to $70.00 a month. The telephone companies paid from 
$6.00 to $15.00 a week and gave ins- ruction to beginners 
for a period of four months.^ Thus progress was made 
according to the industry and ability of the individual 
until in some cases the weekly salary ranged from $23.00 
to $36.00 and chief operators sometimes received $50.00 
a week. The corporation gave the training and advanced 
the worker. According to the Census Bureau ^ for 191 7, 
more than 155,000 women and girls were employed in 
this industry. 

In the United States there are more than 600 general 
hospitals that train women as nurses. The educational 
requirements of this profession are in many ways anal- 
ogous to those for teaching. Only 12% of the nurses' 
training schools permit the graduates of the elementary 
schools to begin the work, while 28% require complete 
four-year high school preparation. The courses for train- 
ing vary in length from a year and a half to three years. 
Only a small number charge tuition and these are gener- 
ally post-graduate in character. About 1,400 of these 
training schools pay their students a cash sum besides 
furnishing them room, board and laundry. The median 
remuneration for the first year of training is $72.00; for 
the second year $96.00; and for the third year, $108.00. It 
is true that they work while they earn and deserve all they 
get, but it does not prevent a trained nurse from making a 
relatively high charge for her services after graduation. 
Both teaching and nursing are essential for the public 



2) Profitable Vocations for Girls. E. M. Weaver. 

3) 1917 Census of Electrical Industries, Bureau of Commerce, 

issued 1920. 



METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHrCR PROFESSIONS 85 

good. Both require an extensive training in order to do the 
skilled work that the occupations demand. The rewards 
for training in both are practically equal. The median 
income of 1,000 nurses in New York City without main- 
tenance in 1903 was between $900.00 and $1,000.00.^ 
From the economic point of view, which type of training 
would a young woman choose, the training school for 
nurses, or the training school for teachers ? 

Another occupation that employs many women, is 
office work, including stenography. The commercial 
course of the public high school gives a preparation that 
admits the worker to this occupation on its lower levels. 
As a measure of the drawing power of a vocation whose 
training is obtained at public expense, enrollment in com- 
mercial courses in the high schools for the year 1917-18 
may be fairly taken. Of 278,275 pupils enrolled in com- 
mercial courses, 173,857 wxre girls. ^ The wages ranged 
from $12.00 to $160.00 a month in this occupation in 
1913.'^ Among twenty-six stenographers who had had 
high school training only, and who were working in the 
best type of offices in New York City in 1920, $110.00 was 
the median salary.^ As long as such salaries may be 
earned without a period of training in an institution away 
from home, and without large personal investment, it is 
easy to see why the occupation has attracted so many 
prospective workers. 

TEACHING COMPARED WITH MILITARY SERVICE. 

Teaching is a type of government service that may be 
compared with that rendered by the officers of the army 
and the navy. To promote the general welfare in times 
of peace and to provide for the common defense in times 

4) Vocations for Girls, E. M. Weaver, p. 211. 

6) Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, Bulletin No. 19, 

1920. 

7) Vocations for Girls, E. M. Weaver, p. 126. 

8) Unpublished Study of Russell Sage Foundation. 



86 state; mainte:nanc]S oe' teachers in training 



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METHODS O^ RECRUITING OTHER PROt'ESSIONS 8/ 

of war, are cooperative purposes of government. Both 
groups of public servants are essential to the perpetuity 
of the state. Both are salaried occupations and do not 
offer the unlimited financial opportunities that are found 
in law, medicine, engineering or business. 

"The individual student who might otherwise wish to 
prepare himself adequately for teaching is likely to be dis- 
couraged by the relatively small financial returns that he 
must expect from his investment. On the other hand, if 
he wishes to enter the service of public defense as an 
officer in the army or the navy, and if he is successful in 
securing an appointment at West Point or Annapolis and 
competent to meet the entrance requirements, the govern- 
ment will not only provide him with board and tuition 
during his period of preparation, but will also pay him an 
annual stipend of $600.00."^ The World Almanac for 
1 92 1, estimates the investment in each man at West Point 
at $1,174.20 per year. After graduation the average sal- 
ary for the first four years of service both in the army and 
the navy is $1,600.00 per year. These military institutions 
have succeeded in establishing a reputation that includes 
social prestige. Merit counts for everything. No one 
feels disgraced by accepting this government aid. On the 
contrary, it is considered an honor to be appointed. The 
plan has little opposition and so far as government aid 
is concerned, it has been incontestably justified in its 
success. 

There is practically no similar opportunity offered to 
those who wish to enter the profession of teaching, 
though its service is equally necessary. The problems of 
education are so numerous and so complex that the need 
for selected ability is just as great as it is in the case of 
military leaders. Many foreign governments render aid 
to their prospective teachers because they expect an im- 

9) Commission on Emergency in Education, Series No. 3, p. 12. 



88 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

portant public service in return. They select competent 
persons for the teaching service and train them at public 
expense. It is even conceivable that a state might ex- 
ercise its sovereign power to the extent of drafting re- 
cruits for its teaching service as it does in time of need 
for its military pursuits. "Is there any more reason why 
any community should be excused from furnishing her 
full quota of teachers, than that the community should 
have been excused during the war for not having fur- 
nished her full quota of soldiers and sailors ?"^^ 

Many state universities and other institutions of higher 
learning have maintained systems of scholarships which 
aim to assist unusual ability and to aid those whose 
financial needs were proving to. be a serious handicap to 
their education. Such scholarships have been looked 
upon as honors and evidence set forth later in this study 
shows that these scholarship students have proved worthy 
OS the honors conferred. Alen of wealth leave large 
sums of money for scholarships in these institutions be- 
lieving that superior ability should be recognized and de- 
veloped for the good of the nation. For example, the 
Edward Rector Scholarship Foundation of Depauw Uni- 
versity, Greencastle, Indiana, provides for 400 scholar- 
ships for men who were honor students during their four 
years of high school. 

Cecil Rhodes endowed an extensive system of interna- 
tional scholarships when he provided for supporting at 
the University of Oxford for the term of three years each, 
about 176 selected scholars from the British Colonies, the 
United States, and Germany. The United States was 
entitled to send two of its best students from each of the 
states and territories. The requirements are the com- 
pletion of at least two years in college and an age limit 

10) Education, May, 1920, pp. 534-5. Supt. H. S. Gruver, Worces- 
ter, Mass. 



METHODS Olf RECRUITING OTH^R PROI'ESSIONS 89 

of from 19 to 25 years. The selections are made on the 
basis of a man's record in school and college according 
to the four points outlined in the will, — scholarship, char- 
acter, interest in outdoor sports and interest in one's fel- 
lows, and instinct for leadership. Between the years 
1904 and 1914, 351 men were appointed. A recent sur- 
vey reports that ninety-nine of these have published books 
or articles. Seventeen are included in ''Who's Who," 
although the group is still under forty years of age. 

The Oxonian summarizes its survey of these men as 
follows : 

TA.BI,E XIV. PRESENT OCCUPATION OF AMERICAN RHODES SCHOLARS, 

I904-I914 

Education 114 

College presidents, deans, etc 7 

Other College Teachers 84 

Educational Administration 7 

Secondary School 11 

Full time teaching, law, medicine, theology.. 5 

Law 72 

Business 38 

Social and religious work (including twelve ministers) 23 

Government service • 15 

Graduate or professional students 10 

Scientific work 10 

Literary and editorial work 8 

Medical work 7 

Miscellaneous 4 

Poor health • 2 

Total 303 

Unaccounted for or dead 48 

351 

For undergraduates in Columbia- University Joseph 
Pulitzer endowed forty scholarships worth $200.00 each 
and in recognition of a separate gift to the LIniversity, the 
institution also grants free tuition to these scholars. 
Many scholarships of a similar type are described in the 
catalogues of the leading institutions of the country. It 



90 STAT^ maintenance: O^ TKACHi^RS IN TRAINING 

is not likely that a policy that has resulted in so much 
good to the individual and to the nation will be aban- 
doned. 

TRAVELING SCHOLARSHIPS. 

The educational value of travel has long been recog- 
nized. International exchanges of students have reaped 
the benefit of the travel involved and of the contact with 
the best thought in the famous institutions of learning of 
the countries visited. The selected youth of such coun- 
tries as Japan, China, and India, after a university course 
in America or Europe, have returned home to become 
useful leaders in the public service of their governments. 
India alone supports 300 state technical scholarships 
abroad. These students receive £150 a year for two years, 
so that each student costs the Indian Government about 
£550.^^ In China, after the Boxer Rebellion an edict 
was issued ordering the leading officers in the various 
provinces to select their most capable students and to 
send them abroad to master Western learning. Education 
and business, as well as international relations, will be 
profoundly influenced by such a policy. These men and 
women become teachers and administrators in the higher 
institutions at home and are able to exert more influence 
than any group of foreigners could hope to do. 

NEW YORK STATE NAUTICAL SCHOOL 

By the provisions of Chapter 322 of the laws of New 
York, passed in 191 3, the state maintains a school for 
the education and training of pupils in the science and 
practice of navigation, seamanship, and steam and electric 
engineering. This school is intended to prepare the stu- 
dents to become officers in the merchant marine. The 
qualifications are very minutely defined and the young 
student between 16 and 20 years of age at entrance must 



11) Report Bureau of Education, India, 1912-17. 



METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROI^ESSIONS 9I 

deposit $50.00 for his uniforms for the two years and 
also as a guaranty of good faith. Board, lodging, tuition, 
and all other necessary expenses are paid out of an ap- 
propriation which was $100,000.00 a year, when the law 
was passed. 

The school is located on a naval vessel belonging to the 
goveriament and each year a long cruise to many of the 
interesting ports of the world is made as a part of the 
training. These young men are prepared to enter an 
occupation that requires skill and the financial rewards 
of which are relatively high. The importance of their 
future work justified the appropriation of public funds. 

Teaching as a profession for young men enters into 
competition with such a subsidized occupation possessing 
the added attraction of life at sea. In drawing power, 
teaching sufifers in contrast with other occupations. The 
state should be as willing to help prepare the teachers of 
its children as it is to train the officers of its sea-going 
vessels. 

GOVERNMENT AID 

The United States government has shown a liberal 
policy toward the returned soldiers in providing for their 
education in many dififerent types of institutions. It has 
provided large sums to aid in training teachers for voca- 
tional schools under the terms of the Smith-Hughes act, 
but as yet no well organized plan has been enacted into 
federal law for aiding in the preparation of the largest 
group of professional workers in the country, the public 
school teachers. 

THE MINISTRY AND TEACHING 

The ministry is another profession whose financial re- 
wards have not been commensurate with the training re- 
quired or with the importance of the work. But under 
the conditions prevailing in the theological seminaries of 



g2 STAT^ MAINTKNANCiv 01^ TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

the country, it is possible for any young man of ability 
and consecration to take advantage of scholarships that 
are ample to cover his living expenses. In eighteen 
prominent theological seminaries chosen at random, the 
catalogues list 57 fellowships ranging from $150.00 to 
$1,000.00 with $500.00 as the median, in addition to hun- 
dreds of scholarships varying from $50.00 to $500.00. 
The churches would be unable to secure a supply of min- 
isters if it were not for this aid. They have recognized 
the need and value of such work to the extent that they 
have organized responsible boards of education to collect, 
distribute, and supervise these student funds. In order to 
continue to receive assistance the individual must main- 
tain high rank as a student and must pledge himself to 
repay the aid in service or in money. Believing in trained 
leadership these church boards do not restrict their help 
to those who are expecting to enter the ministry or mis- 
sionary work. They also render aid to those desiring to 
enter business or the professions. The usefulness of these 
boards is limited only by the amount of money at their 
disposal. 



MlCTHODS OF RECRUITING OTHHR PROFESSIONS 93 



TABLE XV. ACTIVITIES OE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD OF METHODIST 

CHURCH. (Report of 1920.) 

Total number of students aided to Nov. 30, 1919 26,254 

Aggregate sum of money invested in student aid. .. .$3,025,013.53 

Students aided in year 1917-18 1,421 

Money loaned in year 1917-18 $86,865.00 

Callings Aided in 1917-18 

Ministry 606 

Missionary 107 

Teaching 381 

Professional 207 

Business 120 

Total 1,421 

Nationalities and Races Aided in 1917-18. 

American (white) 1,1 13 

American (colored) 173 

English 50 

Norwegian • 10 

Scattering (28) 125 

Total 1,421 

Geographical Distribution 1917-18. 

North Atlantic States 434 

North Central States • 672 

South Atlantic States 121 

South Central States 123 

Western States 68 

Foreign Countries 3 

Total 1,421 

Loans bear 4% interest and range from $50.00 to $200.00 per 
year and total $150.00 to $600.00 for any individual student in his 
whole course. 



94 vSTATE maintenance; of teachers in training 

TABLE XVI. ACTIVITIES IN GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD OF PRESBY- 
TERIAN CHURCH. (Report of 1920.) 

Total sum paid to students 1870-1920 ^3,^17,227.^4 

Number of Students Aided 1915-1920 

Students aided in 1915 776 

Students aided in 1916 881 

Students aided in 1917 895 

Students aided in 1918 685 

Students aided in 1919 403 

Students aided in 1920 585 

Total in six years 4,225 

Loans available for candidates for the ministry and 
mission students range from $90.00 to $250.00 per year. 
Students give notes at 5%, collectible if course is aban- 
doned or on failure to give to the service contemplated, 
the first five years after completing the course. To stu- 
dents for lay service a credit of 40% of a year's aid will 
be given for each year of service approved by the board 
until debt is liquidated. 

Students' Rotary Loan Fund 
Available for worthy and needy students regardless of 
intended occupation. 

Conditions. 
Notes bear 4% interest from first of July after year in 
which loan was made. Notes mature three years after 
first of July following graduation. Then the rate of in- 
terest is 6%. $200.00 is the limit in any year and the 
total loans vary from $500.00 to $600.00. 

QUALITY OF MEN AIDED BY CHURCH 

The question has been asked whether the students 
selected for aid by the Church Boards have succeeded, as 
well as those who were not aided. If a subsidy plan does 
select the inferior and those who will prove wanting in 
independence and leadership in their work, the compara- 
tive record of men in the field under approximately the 
same circumstances should show it. In order to learn 
what the facts are, the Chicago Presbytery of the Pres- 



METHODS OK RECRUITING OTHER PROI^ESSIONS 95 

byterian Church was selected as a typical group of min- 
isters for this investigation. 

After this Presbytery was selected it was found that, 
among the seventy-two preachers actively engaged in the 
ministry, thirty had received aid as students from the 
General Education Board of the Church. Five objective 
criteria were chosen by which to compare the success of 
the two groups. These were suggested by the president 
of the board as fair standards for measuring success in 
the ministry. They were as follows : — church membership ; 
gain in membership during the year; membership of the 
Sunday school ; congregational expenses ; and amounts 
raised for benevolences. The facts here tabulated are 
taken from the Annual Minute Book of the Presbyterian 
Church for the year 1919-20. In the first comparison, 
although the median membership of the groups is against 
the aided men, yet 30% of the aided men were in the 
upper quartile. In gain in membership, in size of Sunday 
school and in congregational expenses, the aided men 
make a better record. In benevolences the unaided men 
excel the others, and the financial ability of a few fami- 
lies might determine the difference. 



96 STATE maintenance: OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 



TABLK XVII. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison of Membership of Churches under Ministers Aided 
by^ Education Board of the Church and those not Aided. 





Membership 


Pastors 


Aided 


Unaided 







— TOO 


5 


4 


I 




lOI 


— 200 


20 


7 


13 




201 


— 300 


II 


5 


6 




301 


— 400 


II 


3 


8 




401 


— 500 


7 


2 


5 




501 


— 600 


3 


I 


2 




601 


— 700 


4 


3 


I 




701 


- 800 













801 


— 900 


I 





I 




901 


—1000 


I 


I 







lOOI 


— 1 100 


I 





I 




IIOI 


— 1200 


I 





I 




I20I 


—1300 


2 





2 




I3OI 


— 1400 


3 


2 


I 




I4OI 


—1500 


I 


I 







1 501 


—1600 













160I 


—1700 













I7OI 


—1800 


6 










180I 


— 1900 













I9OI 


—2000 













2001 


—2100 


I 





I 




nPotal 


72 


30 


42 



300=Median Membership of Group 

240=Median Membership of Aided 

307=Median Membership of Unaided 

Upper quartile contains nine of each group or 30% of aided 

Upper quartile contains nine of each group or 21.43% unaided 



MEITHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 



97 



TABLE XVIII. CHICAGO PRKSBYTERY. 

Comparison of Change in Membership in last year of Churches 

under Pastors aided by Education Board of the 

Church and those not aided. 



Change in Membership Pastors 



Aided 



Unaided 



Loss 


230 to 


100 


I 


Loss 


99 to 


50 


2 


Loss 


49 to 


25 


2 


Loss 


24 to 


10 


6 


Loss 


9 to 


I 


7 


Gain 


to 


10 


18 


Gain 


II to 


20 


10 


Gain 


21 to 


30 


7 


Gain 


31 to 


50 


4 


Gain 


51 to 


70 


5 


Gain 


71 to 


90 


.3 


Gain 


91 to 


120 


2 


Gain 


121 to 


200 


3 


Gain 


201 to 


300 


2 



Total 



72 



30 



42 



Actual Median of Group==gain of 11 members 

Actual Median of Aided=gain of 13 members 

Actual Median of Unaided=gain of 7 members • 

30% of aided are in Upper Quartile 

21.43% of unaided are in Upper Quartile 



98 state: maintenance o^ teachers in training 



TABLE XIX. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison of Sunday School Membership in Churches under 

Pastors aided by Education Board of the 

Church and those not aided. 



Members in 








Sunday School 


Pastors 


Aided 


Unaided 


I — 100 


5 


3 


2 


loi — 200 


16 


7 


9 


201 — 300 


20 


5 


15 


301 — 400 


II 


5 


6 


401 — 500 


2 





2 


501 — 600 


4 


3 


I 


601 — 700 


5' 


I 


4 


701 — 800 











801 — 900 


I 


I 





901 —1000 


I 





I 


lOOI — IIOO 











iioi —1200 


2 


I 


I 


1201 —1300 











1301 —1400 


2 


2 





1401 —1500 











1501 —1600 


I 





I 


Total 


70 


28 


42 



Actual Median of group=259 
Actual Median of aided=289 
Actual Median of unaided=252 



METHODS OF RE:CRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS 



99 



TABLE XX. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 

^omparison of Congregational Expenses in Churches under Pas- 
tors aided by Education Board of the Church 
and those not aided. 
Fiscal Year 1919-20. 



Congregational Expenses 


Pastors 


Aided 


Unaided 





— $ 1,000 


2 





2 


1,001 


— 


2,000 


9 


6 


3 


2,001 


— 


3,000 


14 


4 


10 


3,001 


— 


4,000 


ID 


4 


6 


4,001 


— 


5,000 


3 


2 


I 


5,001 


— 


6,000 


2 





'^ 


6,001 


— 


7,000 


3 





3 


7,001 


— 


8,000 


2 


2 





8,001 


— 


9,000 


I 


I 





9,001 


— 


10,000 


3 


I 


2 


10,001 


— 


15,000 


8 


4 




15,001 


— 


20,000 


5 


I 




20,001 


— 


25,000 


2 


I 




25,001 


— 


30,000 


3 


2 




30,001 


— 


35,000 


2 


I 




Over 




35,000 


I 







Total 






70 


29 


41 



Actual Median of Group=$4,2i8 
Actual Median of Aided= 4,436 
Actual Median of Unaided^ 4,000 



lOO STAT^ MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 



TABLE XXI. CHICAGO PRESBYTERY. 

Comparison of Benevolences in Churches under Pastors aided 
by Educatioti Board of the Church and those 
not aided. 
Fiscal Year 1919-20. 



Benevolenecs 


Pastors 


Aided 


Unaided 


— 


$ 400 


16 


II 


5 


401 — 


800 


II 


3 


8 


801 — 


1,200 


7 


2 


5 


1,201 — 


1,600 


8 


4 


4 


1,601 — 


2,000 


3 


2 


I 


2,001 — 


6,000 


12 


4 


8 


6,001 — 


10,000 


6 


2 


4 


10,001 — 


14,000 


3 


I 


2 


14,001 — 


18,000 


3 





3 


18,001 — 


22,000 











22,001 — 


26,000 


I 


I 





26,001 — 


30,000 











Over 


30,000 


2 





2 


Total 




72 


30 


42 



Actual Median of Group=$i,237 
Actual Median of Aided= 801 
Actual Median of Unaided = 1,498 



METHODS OF RECRUITING OTHER PROFESSIONS lOI 
SUMMARY 

1. The states and the nation have united in promoting 
vocational education. Teaching is a vocation that re- 
quires more preHminary training than many others, hence 
it imposes a greater financial burden upon those who 
choose to enter it. State control of public education gives 
a peculiar significance to the profession of teaching. Self 
interest requires the state to protect itself by securing a 
sufficient number of trained teachers through offering 
such inducements as will meet the competitive attractions 
of other vocations. 

2. Earning and learning are coincident in many indus- 
tries and occupations. Women now have opportunities 
for self-support while learning so well paid a profession 
as that of nursing. 

3. West Point and Annapolis furnish precedents for 
the use of public money in the support of students who 
are preparing for public service. State schools of for- 
estry and seamanship are examples of complete state sup- 
port for prospective workers. 

4. Scholarships in the leading educational institu- 
tions, both public and private, establish the value of assist- 
ing capable or needy students during the critical period 
of preparation. 

5. The extensive service of Church Boards of Educa- 
tion in aiding students shows the economic need of such 
assistance. The experience of these boards in recruiting 
the ministry through financial asistance suggests a similar 
policy to the state in order to supply the lack in a salaried 
profession such as teaching. 

6. The success of aided students in government serv- 
ice, in the work of the Church, and in the schools at- 
tended, indicates that suitable persons can be selected for 
such aid, if the funds are available. 



Chapter V 

THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF 
SUBSIDIES FOR TEACHER TRAINING 
AS AN ELEMENT IN RECRUITING 
THE PROFESSION 
The serious lack of trained teachers in the rural schools 
of the country has been shown in Chapter II. The re- 
markable growth of the high school enrollment has 
created a demand for the best trained teachers produced 
by the professional schools at such attractive salaries that 
the supply for the elementary schools, always insufficient, 
has been still further reduced. To meet the situation, 
states and cities are experimenting in subsidizing re- 
cruits for the teaching profession. These efforts indicate 
that, in addition to the movements for better salaries, for 
growth in service, and for longer and better training, 
there is a financial element that should not be overlooked 
in striving to make the profession of teaching attractive 
and preliminary training universal. What are the advan- 
tages and disadvantages of state subsidies for prospective 
teachers ? 

A. ADVANTAGES 

I. Subsidies zmll Provide Training. 
The first advantage to be listed is that a subsidy for 
teacher-training strikes at the fundamental weakness of 
the public-school system, — the unprepared teacher. Those 
persons who are selected and trained at state expense 
are obligated to render service for a period of years in 
return for the training received. Under a subsidy sys- 
tem, the state would be impelled to provide the best train- 
ing that its institutions could offer and by a continuous 
policy of subsidy, the number of trained teachers in the 

103 



104 STAT^ maintenance: 0? TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

State would be increased in proportion to the investment. 
Eventually, the number to be trained annually would be 
determined by the growth of the system and the changes 
due to death and resignations. To the extent that train- 
ing is a factor in prolonging tenure, the number required 
would decrease from year to year. 

In the absence of a system of subsidizing teacher-train- 
ing, the element of chance has determined the character 
of the instruction received by thousands of children. State 
subsidy would not only make preliminary training certain 
but it would place the burden and responsibility for such 
training upon the state rather than upon the individual. 

In the pioneer days, when new lands were plentiful 
and the opportunities for expansion were unlimited, 
many conditions were neglected or ignored by state gov- 
ernments that need attention in the more stable situation 
of the twentieth century. Conservation of natural re- 
sources, enrichment of country life, public health, and a 
more effective system of public education, are examples 
of once neglected fields of state endeavor that have long 
deserved the emphasis and interest that they are now 
receiving. The local and individualistic tendencies in 
our educational system are rapidly yielding to state poli- 
cies which distribute the financial burdens more equitably 
and secure state-wide benefits which were formerly pos- 
sible only in the larger communities. 

The training of teachers has received limited state 
assistance and the results have been unjust and unsatis- 
factory. • A complete system of state subsidies would ul- 
timately place a competent teacher in every school. Japan 
has succeeded in supplying subsidized teachers to such an 
extent that if her professional standards were rigidly ap- 
plied in this country half of the schools would be closed 



advantage:s and disadvantages 01^ SUBSIDIES 105 

on account of the lack of teachers possessing the re- 
quired training.^ 

2. Change of Piihlic Attitude Tozmrd Teaehing. 

The effect of subsidies upon the pubHc attitude toward 
the necessity of training is one of its most desirable fea- 
tures. States would not train teachers at public expense 
unless preparation were essential to successful teaching. 
Such a policy would tend to modify the attitude of the 
public toward the profession because the selection for 
training at state expense would honor the individual and 
emphasize his value to the community in the work for 
which he is being prepared. The greater the amount of 
subsidy the keener will be the competition and the more 
important the effect upon the profession through improve- 
ment of the personnel. Any method or policy that will 
make teaching more attractive will tend to have a bene- 
ficial effect because larger numbers will apply for training 
and a better selection will be possible. 

So much has been said in recent years about poor sal- 
aries and poor teachers that the effect upon the public has 
been to lower the standing of the profession as a pro- 
spective life work and to lower the status of the individual 
teacher in the community. If the state adopts a policy 
that makes the teacher a skilled state officer, these damag- 
ing attitudes will be modified to the advantage of the 
teacher, the public, and the school. 

3. Subsidies zvill Prolong Tenure. 

Another desirable result of universal training secured 
by state subsidies, would be the effect upon tenure. In 
the rural districts where training is most deficient, the 
teachers shift more frequently and the average term of 
experience is short.^ It has been shown in the Wisconsin 
survev and in other studies that training prolongs serv- 



1) Cyclopedia of Education, Paul Monroe. Article on Japan. 
2) Chapter II, p. 41. 



I06 STATE MAINT£:nANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

ice. "While the average tenure of service for all public 
school teachers is between four and five years, the records 
of the State Normal School at Bridgewater, Massa- 
chusetts, show that the average graduate teaches between 
eight and nine years. The graduates of the Warrensburg, 
Missouri, State Normal School, who had completed only 
the elementary course, were found in 1897-98 to have an 
average term of service of about six years, while the 
graduates of the advanced course had taught on the aver- 
age at least eight years. Graduates of the Illinois State 
Normal University numbering 2,451 between i860 and 
1916 had an average teaching-service record of almost 
nine years. "^ The fact that many teachers do leave the 
profession after so short an experience is a strong argu- 
ment in favor of subsidizing preliminary training. A 
school can afford to lose even a good teacher if the state 
has another well trained for his work, and the trained 
teacher will stay longer, other things being equal. Train- 
ing makes for satisfaction in the skillful performance of 
the task, and the state receives an immediate return upon 
the investment. 

4. Selection for Subsidy zvill Secure Better Material for 
the Profession. 

The selection of good candidates is an essential element 
of any proper plan of state subsidies. The state cannot 
afford to waste money on inferior candidates and the 
nature of the teacher's work requires ability of a high 
order. General ability as shown in school records, as 
measured by standardized tests, or as demonstrated in 
competitive examinations, is a foundation upon which pro- 
fessional training can be successfully placed. 

Such a plan of selection, made possible by means of 
sufficient subsidies, would furnish much better candidates 

3) Commission Series, No. 3, p. 11, National Education Associa- 
tion. 



ADVANTAGTvS AND DISADVANTAGI^S 01^ SUBSIDIE;s IO7 

than does the method by which any one who is wilHng to 
take a school is given a certificate. It is better than to 
admit to a teacher-training institution any one who has a 
prescribed number of credits. Any selection should be 
provisional. The person receiving the assistance must 
continue to show that he is worthy or else his aid should 
be discontinued. The more care exercised in selection, 
the less frequent will be the necessity for such discipline. 

The extensive use of intelligence tests in the army 
suggests possibilities for the use of similar tests whenever 
it is desired to determine the relative abilities of indi- 
viduals. The use of such tests as a supplement to col- 
lege-entrance examinations and in vocational placement 
indicates the possibility of making tests one basis for 
selecting students worthy of state subsidy in teacher- 
training institutions. It has been shown that normal 
school students are somewhat inferior to college students 
as judged by the army tests. ^ If tests preliminary to 
state subsidy be given, the persons whose intelligence 
quotient is below loo could well be rejected. 

The state can adopt a method of selection similar to its 
plan of selecting students for scholarships in higher edu- 
cational institutions and not make entrance to a teacher- 
training institution contingent upon failure to secure 
state benefits in other institutions as is now true in states 
like New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. To make 
the teaching profession as attractive as any other, train- 
ing institutions must not be discriminated against in this 
manner. To put a premium on training in certain higher 
institutions by awarding scholarships to the honor pupils 
in high schools has certainly had the effect of leaving the 
the weaker material to the normal schools.^ It has put 
the stamp of social approval on the one type of institution 

4) Chapter II, Table X. 

5) Chapter II, Tables X. and XI. 



Io8 STATK MAINTENANCE OF TKACHKRS IN TRAINING 

and, by contrast, has made it less desirable to go to the 
other. 

To place the method of selection on the basis of finan- 
cial need alone is unfortunate. An indigent classification 
is socially degrading and results in harm instead of help. 
The plan of aiding "needy" persons in Louisiana^ has 
not succeeded because of this social discrimination. Other 
state scholarship appointments are not made upon that 
basis. Free tuition in the normal schools is quite inde- 
pendent of the economic condition of the pupils. 
5. Selection for Subsidy Requires Testing of High 
School Seniors, 

State subsidies for teacher-training do not involve 
necessarily the luring of young people away from other 
essential work. The large numbers who are now gradu- 
ating from high school can supply the needs of all the 
occupations requiring such preliminary secondary train- 
ing. Furthermore the high school attendance has been 
rapidly increasing and shows every sign of continuing to 
increase for a long time to come. It is important, how- 
ever, to discover and select the best ability available for 
the work of teaching. 

Methods of testing and discovering such ability are 
now so refined that it is possible to determine how high 
school pupils rank relatively to each other. Under pre- 
vailing methods, unfortunately, many of those possess- 
ing the highest ability do not continue their education 
because of economic conditions or for other reasons. On 
the other hand many of those who rank among the lowest 
in ability do enter higher institutions. 

Indiana has completed a state-wide survey"^ of the high 
school seniors, with the expressed purpose of discovering 
and possibly of aiding the superior ability which might 

6) Chapter III, p. 61. 

7) Survey of High School SeHiors in Indiana, 1920. 



advantage:s and disadvantages 01^ SUBSIDIES 109 

otherwise be lost to the state because of lack of training. 
When a state undertakes to subsidize its prospective 
teachers, it will need to find the most worthy and most 
capable young people for the work, and such surveys will 
reveal a wealth of capable material that will give a su- 
perior group as candidates for the teaching profession. 

Diagram No. 5 shows some of the significant facts 
brought out by the survey of Indiana high school seniors. 
From 2.2% to 35% of the best grades of intelligence were 
not intending to take additional training. Here is a 
wealth of material from the subsidizing of which the state 
would derive benefits out of all proportion to the cost. 
The survey also shows that from 40% to 60% of the 
lowest grades of intelligence among high school seniors 
are willing to be trained, but these are doubtful candi- 
dates for state assistance. 

6. Subsidies Tend to Bqiialize Rural and Urban 
Opportunities. 

A large group of expert employes in the public school 
service would insure the state's interest in a suitable sal- 
ary schedule and eventually in a pension plan. The dif- 
ficulties of professional work are not restricted to the 
cities where the greatest economic rewards are received. 
The problems of rural education are even more difficult 
and complex. Nor are the educational needs of city chil- 
dren greater than those of country children. Subsidies 
for prospective teachers might well have the definite pur- 
pose of providing competent teachers for rural children 
and as a corollary the compensation must be so fixed that 
the rural service does not suffer in comparison with the 
urban. 

Under present conditions, the purpose of public educa- 
tion may be nullified by the local authorities, who are 
willing to elect immature and unqualified teachers because 



no STATK MAINTKNANCTv OF TKACH^RS IN TRAINING 









30 



JU> 



/O 



O 









8 O C 




AoOOtLEftE SELECTED 

GOI /WGTO TtOP.AHPTBCH. COLLPOE" 






L,«fiQ*aW{^ 7^i^«cr*.^ ^ ciSSpJv 








ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES III 

they are cheap and because the state has not provided a 
supply possessing superior qualifications. By restricting 
teachers' licenses to graduates of training institutions, 
this injustice to the children of the state could be removed 
at least in part. But subsidies are apparently necessary 
to insure enrollment in the training institutions that will 
be sufficient to provide the requisite number of recruits 
each year. 

Another democratic advantage of subsidized teachers 
is that prepared teachers, on account of the improve- 
ment in their training, will tend to receive salaries more 
nearly equal to those of their supervisors. This is the 
experience of other countries that have such systems.^ 
7. General Effect of Scholarships has been Stimulating. 

The value of competition has long been recognized in 
education. In an unpublished report^ to the Regents of 
the University of New York, Ten Eyck states that, after 
visiting many of the New York state scholars in the in- 
stitutions where they were studying and after getting 
evidence from the high schools of the state from which 
they were chosen, the unanimous verdict was that the 
effect of the selection of state scholars by their relative 
standings with the Board of Regents was very invigor- 
ating. State subsidies have usually been limited in num- 
ber and the element of competition will tend to make 
the training desirable. It may indeed come about that 
many who do not receive state assistance will enter the 
training institutions and complete the work at their own 
expense. This is true now in Japan and in France. 

8. Prospective Teachers Deserve State Assistance. 

The principle of assistance for teacher-training is al- 
ready established by law and custom. The amount and 
necessity o f additional assistance constitute the real points 

8) Chapter III, Germany. 

9) On File State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. 



112 state: maintknanck of teachers in training 

at issue. Vocational schools, trade schools, and colleges 
and universities maintained by the state, are institutions 
through which the state subsidizes a great many occupa- 
tions and professions. Where special need exists, the 
state is justified in spending more money. 

Agricultural schools have received a large amount of 
assistance from the states and the nation. In a very real 
sense the farmers have been subsidized and little objec- 
tion has been made to the policy. If the state needs for- 
esters, it may train them in its own school at its own 
expense, as does Pennsylvania. When it needs police- 
men or soldiers, it trains them and remunerates them 
during the training. Such remuneration is generally 
recognized as a proper exercise of state power and re- 
sources. 

The problems of the school compare favorably in sig- 
nificance with those of the farm or the forest. Universal 
teacher-training by means of subsidies is justified by the 
difficulty and importance to both state and nation, of the 
intricate problems which the teacher must help to solve. 
Illiteracy, Americanization, and public health are types of 
national problems with which untrained novices are un- 
prepared to grapple. With trained teachers the school 
can aid in the solution of such problems. 

As long as teaching in seeking recruits for its service 
must enter into competition with other occupations, many 
of which require less training, the state cannot neglect to 
ofifer any possible inducements in the way of assistance. 
Other industries and occupations have successfully used 
scholarships, loans, and bonuses. Our states should 
capitalize the experience of private enterprise in securing 
skilled workers. 

Teachers deserve state assistance in their preparation 
because the salaries have been too low to justify extensive 



ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OE SUBSIDIES II3 

preparation at private expense. It becomes a state obli- 
gation to protect the children from incompetence in this 
vital relationship in the public school system. 

Those states and nations that have adopted plans by 
which prospective teachers have been aided, have not 
abandoned the practice on account of their experience, al- 
though many of them have been unable to train a suf- 
ficient number of teachers because of military burdens 
or for other financial reasons. Public sentiment in Amer- 
ica is beginning to assert itself in this field as evidenced 
by pending legislation.^^ 

It is not surprising that strong and vigorous objection 
has been made to a policy that seems to be so radically 
different from customary procedure as does that of state 
subsidies for prospective teachers. New departures in 
education have won their way slowly and safely in the 
face of such opposition. State systems of free schools 
were bitterly opposed and long delayed. Compulsory edu- 
cation, free high schools, higher education for women, 
continuation schools, and even normal schools were ques- 
tions for serious debate. It is, therefore, pertinent to ask 
what the objections to the policy of state subsidies for 
teachers are, and to determine their validity. 

B. DISADVANTAGES 

I. Subsidies will Select the Weak and Dependent. 

It has been charged that a system of scholarships or 
subsidies would tend to select those who will always be 
mediocre in ambition and ability. The records of the 
Rhodes scholars or of any group of selected students cited 
in this chapter show that this is not true as a general as- 
sertion. The record of scholarship holders in one of the 
better known small colleges of the country, Washington 
and Jeft'erson College, will show how successful that 

10) See Appendix B. 



114 state: maintenance: 01^ te:achkrs in training 

institution has been in selecting proper material for 
these honors. 

TABLK XXII. RECORD OP STUDENTS RECEIVING SCHOLARSHIPS IN 

WASHINGTON AND JEFFERSON COLIvEGE, WASHINGTON, 

PENNSYLVANIA, FALL SEMESTER, 1920-21.11 

Total Enrollment for the Semester 414 

Total number of Scholarships granted 165 

Average grade of all Students 2.82 

Students holding Scholarships, above average... 125 or 757% 

Students holding Scholarships, below average... 40 or 24.3% 

At Syracuse University a record kept for six years 
shows how the students aided by the Board of Education 
of the Methodist Church compared with other students as 
measured by the election on the basis of scholarship only 
to the honor society, Phi Beta Kappa. These students 
aided by the board were not chosen for aid on account 
of scholarship alone, but for other reasons as well. The 
record shows that the aided students made a slightly bet- 
ter record than the others. While 2.4 per cent, is not a 
large difference, it is clear that the selected group was not 
inferior to the others. 

TABLE XXIII. COMPARISON OF RECORD OF STUDENTS AT SYRACUSE UNI- 
VERSITY^ AIDED BY GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD OF METHODIST 
CHURCH, WITH THOSE NOT AIDED^ MEASURED 
BY ELECTION TO PHI BETA KAPPA.12 







Unaided 


Students 




Aided Students 


Year 


Eligible 


Elected 


% 


Eligible 


Elected % 


1915 


188 


32 


18 


15 


4 ^7 


1916 


218 


32 


14 


31 


3 10 


ipi7 


258 


41 


15 


21 


I 5 


1918 


189 


39 


20 


19 


4 21 


1919 


197 


32 


16 


10 


3 30 


1920 


268 


40 


16 


27 


8 29 


Total 


1.318 


216 


16.3 


123 


23 18.7 



11) Data furnished by Dean R. B. English. 

12) Data furnished by Prof. R. A. Porter. 



ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGKS OF SUBSIDIES II 5 

In New York state the law permits the appointment of 
750 persons each year to scholarships in higher institu- 
tions. These scholarships provide $100.00 a year for four 
years. Owing to withdrawals on account of military 
service and for other reasons, the group for 1914 con- 
tained 863 individuals. Of these, eight or less than one 
per cent, were droppe.d on account of unsatisfactory 
work. Of those appointed in 1919 none was dropped on 
account of poor scholarship.^^ About fifty of these New 
York state scholars chose the Albany State Teachers Col- 
lege, thus obtaining in addition to free tuition, $100.00 
toward living expenses. 

The following table shows the comparison between the 
success of the two groups of students as measured by the 
initial salaries of inexperienced teachers so far as the 
facts were known. Again it appears that the students re- 
ceiving aid were capable of securing practically the same 
salaries as the others. Of course, some other factors 
enter into the amount of salary received. The type of 
position, the location with reference to the home of the 
teacher, as well as the age, appearance, and personality 
of the individual, — all have an influence in the salary ac- 
cepted and they are quite independent of the question of 
aid received. Table XXIV shows that the scholars made 
a better record in their studies than the others in their 
class. 

2. Other Occupations are not Subsidized. 

It is pertinent to ask why teachers should receive state 
assistance for their preparation when many other occupa- 
tions and professions are not aided from the public treas- 
ury. 

State subsidies for teacher-training are more necessary 
now than formerly because of a combination of circum- 

13) Data furnished by Charles F. Wheelock, Assistant Com- 
missioner for Secondary Education, New York State. 



ii6 stath: mainte:nance: of tkachkrs in training 



TABLE XXIV. RECORDS FROM NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE EOR 
TEACHERS. 14: 

A. Success of State Scholarship Students Compared with Other 
Students Without Teaching Experience on Basis of Initial Salary. 



Year 




1919 


1920 






State 




State 




Initial 


I 


Scholar 


Other 


Scholar 


Other 


Salaries 


Grad. 


Grad. 


Grad. 


<}rad. 


$ 650 — 


$ 800 


II 


17 








801 - 


950 


21 


35 





2 


951 — 


1,000 


7 


7 


18 


21 


1,101 — 


1,250 





2 


10 


22 


1,251 — 


1,400 


I 


2 


5 


7 


1,401 — 


1,550 











2 


1,551 — 


1,700 





I 


.2 


3 


1,701 — 


1,850 











2 


1,851 — 


2,000 











I 


Total 




40 


64 


35 


60 


Actual Median 


$850 


$850 


$1,100 


$1,200 


Average 


$885 


$879 


$1,170 


$1,221 


Records 


Unknown 


3 


53 


13 


40 



B. Scholarship Record of Class of 191 7. 

Average of State Scholars (46 Students) =80.55% 

Average of other Students (66 Students) =78.41 % 

Average of whole Class (112 Students) =79.29% 

4 State Scholars dropped out of class since 1913. 

48 other members of class dropped out since 1913. 



14) Data furnished by Dean H. H. Horner. 



ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES 117 

Stances. As a result of the war, people appreciate more 
keenly the importance of the schools, the serious nature 
of the lack of trained teachers, and the necessity of a bet- 
ter preparation for the difficult problems that confront 
the nation in the future. To secure a supply of trained 
teachers is more difficult because of the enlarged oppor- 
tunities for women in other occupations and on account 
of the industrial development. In order to promote the 
public welfare a state may exercise its police powers in a 
very broad way at any time of stress or strain. If a 
crisis were to occur in public health extending over a 
period of years, it is not inconceivable that it would be 
the duty of the state to subsidize the training of phy- 
sicians and nurses. 

The schools are the agencies for the state which reach 
the future generation while it is in the formative period. 
It is self-defense and preparedness for the future that 
justifies state control of the schools. The state's interest 
in the schools is impersonal and impartial. Through this 
interest helpless children are protected from the greed 
of parents and promoters. Ultimate responsibility for the 
school system has thus been placed upon the state. So- 
ciety has not given the state such exclusive control of 
other occupations and professions. 

Facts have been cited to show that more than fifty per 
cent, of the teachers are not worthy to be called profes- 
sional on the basis of their training. Such an unstable 
and unorganized group cannot hope, unaided, to lift it- 
self bodily to a higher professional plane by a declaration 
of principles or by the cultivation of professional atti- 
tudes. If barriers are to be erected to keep the untrained 
out of the profession, the state must do it by law, but at 
the same time, it must make it possible for a sufficient 
number of trained men and women to replace those who 



ii8 STATE maintenance: of teachers in training 

are debarred. Subsidies, training", and better living con- 
ditions are all factors that will contribute to the supply 
of teachers, if properly influenced by state action. 
3. Subsidy is not Justified Because of Short Tenure. 
State subsidy must be guarded by obligations on the part 
of those aided. Laws in several states require a pledge 
of two years' teaching in return for free tuition. As this 
aid is increased, the service required must be increased. 
In some countries this service is as long as six, seven, or 
ten years. As a matter of fact the additional training in 
combination with proper salary and pension laws will 
extend the term of service so that short tenure will cease 
to be a problem. But even if the term of service is to re- 
main relatively brief, there is all the more reason why the 
state should train the teachers in order that teachers may 
make the most of their efforts during the period that they 
serve. 

4. State Subsidy means Paternalism. 

All the endeavors of the state to promote the common 
good and to provide for the general welfare meet the 
same objection. The same argument would demand that 
the parent should do as he pleases with reference to the 
education of his children. Representative government 
has become so well established that it is folly to oppose 
efforts to improve its efficiency in its distinctive fields of 
activity. 

State subsidy for prospective teachers has been used by 
all types of governments in many parts of the world. The 
conditions in the schools justify its use there without in- 
volving any necessary extension of the policy to other de- 
partments of work. 

5. State Subsidy Bncoiiragcs Extravagance, 
Most of the scholarship plans in America do not aim to 

supply all of the student's needs. This allows opportu- 



advantage:s and disadvantages of subsidies 119 

Txity for self help and for self direction and control. To 
turn over to the individual student a large sum of money 
even on the installment plan would doubtless invite ex- 
travagance and lead to the wrong attitude toward state 
assistance. Effective plans for subsidy require the student 
to give bond or notes for the amount given by the state, 
so that the state's interests are preserved. These notes 
must be paid by efficient service or if the individual fails 
to teach the required number of years, the notes are col- 
lected. 

6. Subsidies Help in foreign Countries Only. 

Some who are opposed to state grants for teachers de- 
clare that the reason subsidies have aided the profession 
abroad is that society is stratified there and that subsidy 
affords a great opportunity for those low in the social 
scale to elevate themselves into positions of relative honor 
and responsibility. No doubt the teaching profession has 
been recruited to some extent in foreign countries on 
this basis. But essentially the same situation exists in 
society in this country except the stratification is econo- 
mic rather than social. The democratic effect of a state 
subsidy that seeks out ability in the lower social groups 
and conserves it for the benefit of all concerned is just as 
desirable in America as in any other country. 

Studies of the teaching population show that many of 
our prospective teachers come from homes the economic 
and social standards of which are not high.^^ Many are 
only one or two generations removed from the immigrant 
class and training at state expense is the only method 
of preventing such persons from entering the schools 
without some training that will tend to compensate for the 
lack of home advantages. 



15) Social Composition of the Teaching Population, Coffman. 



120 STATE) MAiNTE:NANC^ 01? TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

7. Other Remedies will Provide Trained Teachers. 

Before a new policy involving large expenditures of 
public money is adopted, it is necessary to determine 
whether any modification of existing methods will pro- 
duce the desired results. Many investigations in typical 
sections of the country clearly show that the proportion 
of trained teachers is shamefully low. What are the ele- 
ments in educational law and administration that could 
contribute to the remedy of this national evil? 

Since more training is needed, it seems obvious that 
the laws should be so drafted that standard minimum 
preparation in a training institution would be required 
for certification. Such legislation would close at least 
half of the schools, if it were applied suddenly. To re- 
quire two years of professional training beyond the high 
school would prevent many persons from entering the 
profession because of economic conditions, although their 
natural ability might be of a high order. The cost of 
training at an institution, approximately $400.00 a year, 
would cause these prospective teachers to enter other 
occupations as soon as they left high school. 

Nearly 300,000 teachers are required in the rural 
schools. It is doubtful whether these schools could be 
maintained if the typical family as described by Cofifman^^ 
were prevented from furnishing the necessary teachers. 
To avoid this calamity, higher standards of training must 
be reached gradually and the legitimate function of state 
subsidy as a means to this end becomes apparent. 

Again since teachers cannot afiford training, the only 
way to offer additional financial aid is to suggest that 
under present practice the salaries be increased so that 
teachers may secure training. It is doubtful whether 
salaries, especially in the rural districts, can be made high 



16) The Social Composition of the Teaching Population, Coffman. 



ADVANTAGEIS AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES 121 

enough to induce a sufficient number of candidates to get 
the training before entering the profession. 

Salaries and training ought to be definitely related. Ex- 
tensive preparation should receive its reward in the salary 
schedule on account of the superior service rendered, re- 
gardless of the source of the funds which made the prep- 
aration possible. In other occupations high salaries are 
not paid to some workers in order to influence others to 
secure training. On the contrary, skill, experience, and 
ability receive their due reward. 

The time when the prospective teacher needs help 
occurs when the high school course is finished and voca- 
tional choice must be made. Here is a potential worker 
who may earn in various occupations $50.00 or $60.00 
per month without any further investment of time or 
money in preparation. Economic pressure in the home 
makes the individual feel that he must contribute to the 
extent at least of supporting himself. The delayed re- 
turns of a salary schedule which would not begin to be 
felt for approximately three years (two spent in training 
and one in teaching) do not compare in drawing power 
with the immediate rewards of the other vocations. 

State scholarships for teacher training offered at this 
strategic moment of decision will aid greatly in neutral- 
izing the attractions of the other occupations. They will 
bring to the teacher-training institutions a group of well 
qualified candidates who would otherwise be lost to the 
profession. 

The effect of such aid would not be to lower the sal- 
aries of the teaching service. The improved character 
of the profession would justify higher salaries rather 
than lower. The question of the source of the funds used 
in preparation is never asked of teachers in fixing the 
salary schedule. The aid received in free tuition by those 



122 STATE MAINTENANCE OF TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

teachers who have attended state normal schools has not 
resulted in any difference in their salaries as compared 
with those of teachers who have paid their own tuition 
for training of equal quality. 

Those states that have already adopted forms of state 
subsidy do not discriminate against the beneficiaries of 
such aid. In fact, the tendency is to pay them more on 
account of their superior efficiency. The Maine law 
offers a 25% bonus to the rural teachers who take the 
summer course where all expenses are paid by the state. 

The salaries paid in Germany before the war were on a 
higher level relatively than were the salaries in America.^"^ 
If subsidies are the cause of low salaries, why is it that, 
in the United States where the subsidy plan is almosi 
neghgible in its influence in the teaching profession, the 
cry for higher salaries is most insistent? Poor prepara- 
tion and unsatisfactory methods of certification are two 
of the reasons for the salary situation. 

The public schools need the united assistance of all the 
factors which are now at work for their betterment and 
in addition the help of the state and nation in providing 
institutional preparation for the teachers before they be- 
gin their professional career. 

8. Cost of Subsidizing Teacher Training, 

The chief objection to the policy of state assistance for 
prospective teachers is that it will cost too much. The 
question of cost is a relative matter. Its justification de- 
pends upon the value and necessity of the thing pur- 
chased, as well as upon the ability of the purchaser to 
make payment. Previous discussion has shown the great 
need of better prepared teachers in many parts of the 
country. The policy of non-interference in striving to 
meet this need has proved to be a failure. Every incom- 

17) Prussian Elementary Schools, Alexander. 



ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OE SUBSIDIES 12i^ 

petent teacher is evidence of that failure. So far as the 
children are concerned, the success of the entire school 
system depends upon the competence' of the teachers. 
Good teachers in some favored communities will have 
little influence in those less fortunate localities where the 
untrained teachers represent the state's lack of interest 
in equality of educational opportunity. It is a natural 
desire on the part of the parent to have the best teachers 
that can be employed for his own children. There can be 
no denial of the vital importance of a well prepared 
teacher in every school, even in the remotest rural school. 
The parent must look to the state to protect him from 
failure and inefficiency in this matter. 

The problem of trained teachers is too large for each 
community to attempt to solve alone. Its fiscal impli- 
cations involve not only the state but the nation. Al- 
ready Federal aid is being used by the states in the prep- 
aration of teachers under the Smith-Hughes act. Our 
national wealth is five times as great as in 1890, although 
population has not gained 100%.^^ Because of late 
entrance into the world war and because of our vast 
natural resources, our national debt is not so great as 
are those of the other great nations. If any nation can 
afiford the expense of. training its teachers with public 
funds that nation is the United States. 

Money spent in making a school system effective 
should not be looked upon as an extravagance. Ignorance, 
illiteracy, and poverty are found together. Mexico, Italy, 
Spain, India, and Russia are examples of countries 
where public education is not available for the great 
majority of the common people. Contrast these countries 
with Switzerland, Norway, Holland, or Scotland. 



18) Chapter II. Table VII. 



124 STATK maintenance; of teachejrs in training 

Our immigration laws have permitted large groups of 
aliens to come into the country, bringing the customs and 
standards of the Old World with them. Within a few 
years the menace of such unassimilated groups has been 
clearly recognized. The responsibility for the American- 
ization of the immigrant and his children has been placed 
upon the educational system. So serious a burden should 
not be placed upon the shoulders of the unprepared and 
inexperienced young women who now form the bulk of 
the teaching population. The interests of the state are 
too vital to raise the the question of expense. 

Vast sums of money have been expended by states for 
good roads, for public health, and for agriculture. All 
are worthy objects of state assistance but no more neces- 
sary than are good schools. To insure teacher-training 
means to protect children from incompetent direction 
and to aid the prospective teacher when he needs it most. 
Relatively few teachers remain in the service long enough 
to earn the benefits of a pension law, but every subsidized 
teacher gains advantages for himself which can be 
shared by every community served by a teacher thus 
aided. 

Approximately ioo,(XX) new teachers are required in 
the public schools every year. To give these teachers 
two years of professional training beyond the standard 
high school course will cost a large sum. It is not essen- 
tial to pay all the expenses of these students. Most young 
people have some resources of their own and the honor 
of being selected by the state will stimulate the individ- 
ual to provide a part of the cost. Again it is not neces- 
sary to subsidize all prospective teachers. Many persons 
who are able to pay their own expenses would still be 
permitted to do so. It is probable that many of those 
entering into competition for the scholarships would con- 



ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSIDIES 1 25 

sider the training so valuable that they would be stimu- 
lated to go on at their own expense. 

Recent legislation in America seems to regard $300.00 
as the proper amount of annual subsidy required in ad- 
dition to free tuition. ^^ If 60,000 persons were selected 
annually for such subsidy the cost for the two groups 
would be $36,000,000. This is approximately four per 
cent, of the annual expenditure for public education in the 
United States, which is now about $1,000,000,000. In 
1920 the government spent almost four times that total 
amount on its military enterprises. ^^ A wise use of 
public money would recognize in education a valuable 
means of building up the national defense. 

The advantages of universal training for teachers far 
outweigh the disadvantages that have been alleged by 
those who oppose state subsidy. Experience in the ad- 
ministration of such a plan would remove most of the dif- 
ficulties. American ingenuity can solve the problems 
tnvolved in the operation of state subsidy for prospective 
teachers. All other plans in use have not succeeded in 
placing a trained teacher in every school. This ideal may 
be more nearly achieved by a wise use of additional aid 
for the preparation of teachers. 

SUMMARY. 

1. State subsidy for prospective teachers extends the 
policy of assistance already adopted by central authority 
and proposes to attack vigorously the prevailing lack of 
sufficient preparation among teachers. By making the 
profession of teaching more attractive, the state would 
counteract much of the disparaging attitude which the 
public now exhibits toward teaching. 

2. Trained teachers are more valuable than incom- 
petent rec ruits because they are likely to teach longer as 

19) Connecticut, lUinois, Delaware. See Appendix B. 

20) Rosa, Chart in Survey, January 22, 1921, p. 600. 



126 STATK maintenance: O? TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

well as more efficiently. Subsidy will attract a sufficient 
number of candidates to allow selection of those who 
possess the best ability. State assistance will make it pos- 
sible to prolong- the training of many high school grad- 
uates whose ability should be utilized by the state but 
whose economic conditions now compel them to give up 
further study. 

3. Aid in the form of scholarships, offered in other 
fields of activity by educational institutions, has proved 
to be stimulating. Teachers deserve state assistance as 
much as farmers, foresters, or sailors. States are ex- 
tending their scholarship plans as a result of their ex- 
perience in using them, rather than abandoning them, 

4. Students selected for assistance in other fields have 
proved worthy of such aid. They have been successful 
in school and in their chosen work. The state's need for 
teachers which results from its control of public educa- 
tion, justifies assistance by the state without necessarily 
extending the policy to other occupations. 

5. The objections of extravagance and short tenure 
are easily met by the provisions of the law requiring! a 
pledge of service and limiting the use of the money to 
definite purposes. 

6. The opportunity for worthy students to improve 
their social status through state subsidy is just as im- 
portant in the United States as in the foreign countries 
where subsidies for teachers have been in use for many 
years. 

7. Other methods of securing trained teachers have 
not succeeded. State and national subsidies for prospect- 
ive teachers will supplement and reinforce the other plans. 
America can afford the expense and the benefits to be 
derived justify the investment. 



Chapter VI 
CONCLUSIONS 

The evidence presented shows that the shortage of well 
trained teachers still continues in spite of the growth in 
numbers of normal schools and in the enrollment of col- 
leges and universities. 

Other occupations and professions have been more at- 
tractive, because the time for training was shorter or the 
cost of preparation was less, or the prospective rewards 
were greater. With the increasing educational demands 
and the trend toward longer courses of training for all 
grades of the teaching service, the cost of preparation 
has materially increased. 

A majority of those who desire to enter the teaching 
profession do so by means of a system of certification 
that permits them to avoid the costs of preparation. More- 
over, the inadequate salaries paid in the rural districts 
do not secure professionally trained teachers. Those 
persons who are able to afford the time and money re- 
quired for standard preparation usually seek employment 
in the towns and cities. This situation has resulted in a 
transient, incompetent, and immature body of teachers in 
the rural schools. 

The differences existing between rural and urban edu- 
cational opportunities are intolerable in a nation that is 
devoted to the principles of equity and justice. The 
problems of the rural teacher require at least as much 
skill and preparation for their solution as do those of the 
city teacher who has in addition to a somewhat simpler 
problem the advantage of expert supervision. The state 
owes as much to the rural child as it does to the city child. 

127 



128 state: maintenance of teachers in training 

Those rural communities that have recognized the dif- 
ference in Hving conditions and have been financially able, 
have paid well trained teachers as much as or more than 
such teachers would receive in the towns and cities in 
order to compete for their services. 

There are inequalities in the cost of preparation that 
should be reduced by a well planned system of state assist- 
ance, (i) Several states and countries have made pro- 
vision for transportation charges, thus encouraging a 
wider range in the selection of students. (2) It would 
seem equally justifiable to make up from public funds the 
excess cost of institutional life over home life, inasmuch as 
the former is one of the most important factors in the 
training process. Under present conditions students liv- 
ing in the immediate vicinity of the professional school en- 
joy a great economic advantage over those who come from 
the state at large, but the state loses the advantages of 
having them live a regulated institutional life during the 
period of training. It should be possible with liberal 
state assistance to require all students to live within the 
institution and thus get the complete benefit of its 
training. 

The teaching profession continues to draw many of its 
recruits from the humbler homes. It has been the means 
by which capable and ambitious young people have tried 
to improve their social status. However they are often 
unable to pay for the professional training that is neces- 
sary for efficiency. By state subsidy it is proposed to 
help such persons to secure adequate training not only 
because the students need aid but because a trained teach- 
er in every school is the goal that the state should strive 
to attain. 

The foundations of a real profession of teaching must 
rest ultimately upon a broad preliminary training such as 



CONCIvUSlONS 129 

prevails in medicine, in law, and in the ministry. Equality 
of educational opportunity for the children requires that 
the state should work toward this desirable goal by pro- 
viding teachers with preliminary training equal to a mini- 
mum standard throughout the state. To accomplish this 
purpose, an aggressive policy must be adopted. Merely 
to recognize and state the need will not modify the unjust 
conditions which now prevail. 

Other occupations, such as telegraphy and nursing, 
offer financial inducements to those willing to undertake 
training in order to create a body of skilled workers. 
Many vocations permit advancement within the service, 
without specific preliminary training, and thus offer op- 
portunities for the worker to earn a living wage while he 
prepares for promotion. Neither of these policies is 
characteristic of the teaching profession. Little financial 
assistance has been offered, although the work requires 
a high degree of skill and a broad preparation before it 
can be successfully begun. The function of state sub- 
sidies for prospective teachers is to recognize these dif- 
ferences and to make the teaching service as attractive 
as is any other work. 

Another purpose of state subsidy is to counteract a 
certain amount of social stigma or prejudice that has 
attached to the profession of teaching, with the effect 
that many possible recruits have been prevented from en- 
tering the work. State recognition of the importance of 
the teacher as expressed in material aid will dignify and 
honor the profession and the competition for the oppor- 
tunities offered, will tend to make the occupation more 
attractive. 

Scholarships in our colleges and universities have suc- 
ceeded in selecting persons of ability. Many of these 
students could not have received the advantages of higher 



130 state: mainte:nance: of tkachers in training 

education without this assistance. The precedent of us- 
ing pubHc money for such a purpose is well established 
at West Point and Annapolis and in many of our tax sup- 
ported colleges and universities through the provision of 
scholarships. The need for trained teachers clearly jus- 
tifies and demands the extension of this policy to the field 
of teacher-preparation which has been hitherto so much 
neglected. 

Additional experience may discover better methods of 
selection than any yet devised, but school records, com- 
petitive examinations, and intelligence tests afford the 
best means at present. It is not maintained that these 
methods will in every case select those who will make 
good teachers. The training institutions must eliminate 
those individuals who lack the traits of character and per- 
sonality that are required in the profession. 

Teachers in many foreign countries and in a few 
states in the United States are receiving financial assist- 
ance toward adequate preparation. The fact that 
America has done less in this direction than any other 
great nation and at the same time possesses a teaching 
population containing so large a proportion of incom- 
petent teachers, plainly suggests the possibility of great 
improvement through such a policy. The evidence pre- 
sented justifies the conclusion that state subsidies will not 
destroy any desirable characteristics of the public schools. 
The sole aim of such a policy is to provide an adequate 
supply of trained teachers. 

The magnitude of this undertaking is recognized in 
the proposed Sterling-Towner Bill, which, accepting the 
precedent established in the Smith-Hughes Act, plans 
for the cooperation of the nation with the states in pre- 
paring teachers for their work. The state and nation 
should share this responsibility and burden because their 



CONCI^USIONS 



131 



interests in public education are mutual and co-extensive. 
It is impossible for any state to solve this problem alone. 
If one state succeeds in training a large group of teach- 
ers, another adjoining state by means of a fortunate sal- 
ary schedule may attract the teachers from her neighbor 
and rob her of her vested interest in the training pro- 
vided. So long as there is an insufficient supply, there 
will be competition for those that are trained and the 
poorer districts are limited to those that are left. 

It is a national problem not alone because it is common 
to all the states, but because ignorance, illiteracy, and in- 
competency are a menace to the nation's progress. Hence 
it is legitimate to secure the financial assistance of the 
national treasury in an enterprise that promises so much 
for the improvement of the teaching population. 

The growth of national wealth and resources in the 
United States is unparalleled in the modern world. There 
are sources of taxation in every state that are as yet un- 
tapped. The question is not so much whether the states 
and nation can afford the cost. Rather the question 
should be asked whether they can afford to postpone any 
longer so vital an investment in teacher preparation. It 
has been estimated that an annual expenditure by all the 
states of four per cent, of the total now spent for public 
education would solve this problem within ten years. A 
group of more than 66,000 teachers could be prepared an- 
nually by means of an expenditure of $40,000,000 in an- 
nual scholarships of $300.00 each. Seven states have 
already made a beginning in this direction and several 
others have legislation now pending. It is a policy that 
must be adopted upon the initiative of each state separ- 
ately. Hence the time required for the policy to become 
effective is essentially unpredictable. 



132 STATK maintenance; of teachers in training 

In the meantime every possible agency that contributes 
to the improvement of teachers must be fully utilized. 
Teachers in service must be encouraged to go to sum- 
mer schools, or to go to school on leave of absence. Sal- 
aries and training should be more nearly adequate and 
more closely related. In short the teaching profession 
must be recruited not only through the character of its 
training, but through the attractiveness of its working 
conditions as v^ell as through its opportunities for service. 
SUGGESTED TERMS OF A SUBSIDY EAW. 

Scholarships shall be established worth at least $300.00 
annually, in addition to free tuition, to be devoted to the 
maintenance of students in the teacher-training institu- 
tions of the state for two years of professional work. 
These scholarships shall be payable to the training insti- 
tutions in semi-annual installments upon the certificate of 
the president of the institution that the conditions of the 
law have been fulfilled by the scholarship holders. 

Candidates for scholarships shall be graduates of four- 
year high school courses or the equivalent, as determined 
by the State Department of Public Instruction. Each 
must present a certificate of good health signed by a 
reputable physician, and be a resident of the state for 
one year and a citizen of the United States. They shall 
be selected by competitive examination under regulations 
adopted by the State Board of Education. 

Scholarship holders shall pledge themselves to teach 
the next four years after completing the course in the 
public schools of the state or return a proportionate part 
of the money granted by the state for the years of service 
omitted. They shall pledge themselves to complete the 
course in the training school. 

For the proper performance of the pledge, the student 
shall give bond signed by a responsible property holder 



CONCIvUSlONS 133 

covering the entire sum of $6oo.cx). The bond shall be 
filed in the offices of the State Department of PubHc In- 
struction. 

Ill health and failure to carry the work of the training 
school successfully, will exempt the student from his 
pledge and the bondsman from liability. 

The state should guarantee the teacher a salary equal 
to that paid for the same grade of preparation in the best 
schools of the state. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Alabama Survey, Bulletin No. 41, 1919, U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
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Alexander, Thomas, Prussian Elementary Sehools, 1918. 

Ayres, Leonard, An Index Number for State School Systems, 
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Bagley, Wm. C, The Nation and the Sehools, Keith and Bagley, 
Macmillan, 1920. 

Book, Wm. F., rreliminary Report — State-zmde Survey of High 
School Seniors, Bulletin of Extension Division of Univer- 
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Brandon, Edgar E., Latin-American Universities and Special 
Schools, Bulletin No. 30, 1912, U. S. Bureau of Education. 

Burgess, W. Randolph, Trends in School Costs. Russell Sage 
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Centennial of the U. S. Military Academy, 1802-1902, Vol. II. 

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Cloyd, David E., Modern Education in Europe and the Orient, 
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Holden, E. S., West Point and the U. S. Military Academy, 1909. 

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Kandel, I. L., Training of Elementary Teachers in Germany. 
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Keith, John, The Nation and the Schools, Keith and Bagley, 1920. 

Manny, F. A., City Training Schools, Bulletin No. 47, 1914, U. S. 
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136 STATK MAINTENANCE O^ TEACHERS IN TRAINING 

Moulton, H. F., Powers and Duties of Education Authorities, 
London, 1919. 

Monroe, Paul, Cyclopedia of Education. 

New Zealand, Report of Education in 1918. 

New South Wales, Report of Education in 1918. 

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Ohio State Survey, 1914. 

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Schoolmen's Week Proceedings, Bulletin of University of Penn- 
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State Superintendent's Report, Missouri, 1919. 

State Superintendent's Report, Montana, 1920. 

Soley, J. R., History of U, S. Naval Academy. 

State Normal School Catalogues. 

State School Laws. 

Survey of Higher Educational Institutions, North Dakota. 

Statesman's Year Book. 

Theological Seminary Catalogues. 

Training Schools for Nurses, Bulletin No. 72,, 1919, U. S. Bureau 
of Education. 

Weaver, Eli, Profitable Vocations for Girls; Profitable Vocations 
for Boys. 

Wickersham, J. P. History of Education in Pennsylvania. 

Williams, Gus H., Careers for our Sons, London, 1914. 

World's Almanac. 



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APPENDIX B 
PENDING LEGISLATION 

CONNECTICUT I92I 

An Act Providing for Trained Teachers. 

Section 1066, of the General Statutes is amended to 
read as follows : The State Board of Education may at all 
times maintain, in any of the normal schools, one student, 
selected on the basis of scholarship and general fitness, 
from each town in the state, upon the recommendation of 
the town school committee or board of school visitors 
of such town; and for students admitted to said schools 
under the provisions of this section living expenses, not to 
exceed three hundred dollars for each pupil in any one 
year, shall be provided by said State Board of Educa- 
tion free of charge. Every person entering a normal 
school under the provisions of this section shall enter 
into an agreement with the State Board of Education to 
remain at the normal school for two years, unless in case 
of ill health or dismissal by the school authorities, and 
to teach in one of the towns whose grand list shall not 
exceed two million five hundred thousand dollars as last 
determined by the State Board of Equalization, for a 
period of three years after graduation unless excused by 
the State Board of Education. 

Statement. 

The purpose of this act, which changes the grant for 
living expenses from $150.00 to $300.00 a year is to en- 
courage more persons to enter the state normal schools, 
and also to insure greater numbers of trained teachers in 
the schools of the small towns of the state. 

139 



140 state: mainti:nanci^ o^ te:achi:rs in training 

delaware 1 92 1 

An act to establish Free Scholarships at Delaware Col- 
lege for the training of teachers for the public schools 
of Delaware and making an appropriation therefor. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa- 
tives of the State of Delaware in General Assembly met : 

Section i. That the Trustees of Delaware College 
shall establish in the Women's College, affiliated with 
Delaware College, fifty (50) free scholarships affording 
the holders thereof certain tuition, board and lodging 
during a two (2) years' course of training for teaching 
in the free public schools of this State. 

Section 2. That the State Board of Education shall 
award said scholarships; and all applications therefor 
shall be filed with it. 

Section 3. Every applicant, upon filing her applica- 
tion, must comply with the following conditions: 

(i) She shall be at least eighteen years of age on or 
before the first day of December of the year in which she 
makes application. 

(2) She shall be a graduate of a standard four-year 
high school. 

(3) She shall file a certificate of good health by a 
reputable physician. 

(4) Her application must bear the approval of her 
Superintendent of Schools and of the State Commissioner 
of Education. 

(5) She shall sign a bond, provided by the State 
Board of Education, to complete the course at the 
Women's College to the best of her ability and upon the 
completion of the course to teach three (3) years in the 
public elementary schools of Delaware. 

Section 4. The Department of Education of Delaware 
College shall renew or terminate each scholarship upon 



appe:ndixes 141 

the record of the holder at the end of the first year's 
course. 

Section 5. The sum of Fifteen Thousand Dollars 
($15,000) is appropriated annually for said scholarships 
out of any money in the treasury and not otherwise ap- 
propriated ; said sum shall be paid by the State Treasurer 
to the Treasurer of the Trustees of Delaware College as 
follows: One-half thereof on the first day of October 
and the other half thereof on the first day of February 
in each and every collegiate year ; provided that on said 
dates said Treasurer of the College shall certify that 
fifty (50) persons, awarded scholarships, are enrolled and 
pursuing the prescribed course of training; for each 
scholarship Three Hundred Dollars ($300) shall be an- 
nually paid and if less than fifty (50) persons are enrolled, 
on any date of payment, there shall be a corresponding 
abatement in the amount paid. 

TH^ PROPOSKD NORMAL, SCHOOL SCHOIvARSHIP LAW OF 
ILLINOIS — 1 92 1 

A Bill for an Act to Provide Scholarships for Students 

Attending the State Supported Institutions for the 

Training of Teachers. 

Section i. Be it enacted by the people of the State of 
Illinois represented in the General Assembly : That the 
State of Illinois hereby agrees within the limits of the 
annual appropriations provided in accordance with this 
Act to cooperate with the school districts in the State in 
providing two-year scholarships for students in the state- 
supported institutions for the training of teachers. 

Section 2. Said scholarships shall be for $300 per 
year payable one-half from the District Treasury in Sep- 
tember, the other half from the state appropriation in 
January of the two years for which the scholarship shall 
run. 



142 STATE MATNTKNANCK 01^ TEACTTRRS IN TRAINING 

Section 3. Said scholarships shall be awarded between 
May I and August 15. The school board awarding the 
scholarship shall without delay notify the Superintendent 
of Public Instruction of its act, who shall register the 
scholarships in the order that the notifications are re- 
ceived. Within ten days after August 15 the Superin- 
tendent of Public Instruction shall approve the scholar- 
ships awarded according to law in the order of their 
registration except that no county may be deprived of its 
minimum quota, one scholarship for each fifty teachers 
or major fraction of this number. No more than 1000 
scholarships may be approved in any year. Scholarships 
reported beyond this limit shall not receive state aid. 

Section 4. Said scholarships may be awarded by 
school boards to residents of the school district, who are 
graduates of recognized four-year high schools, who are 
of good moral character and who meet the scholastic and 
physical standards prescribed by the Superintendent of 
Public Instruction. Any district may issue at least one 
scholarship in each biennium. If two or more scholar- 
ships are issued in any district, the total amount paid for 
scholarships in any year shall not exceed five per cent, of 
the annual expenditure for teachers' salaries in that dis- 
trict. 

Section 5. The person receiving the scholarship shall 
sign a pledge to attend a state school for the training of 
teachers in Illinois for two school years and continue his 
studies until graduation, and after his graduation, to 
teach two years in the district furnishing the aid and two 
additional years in the public schools of Illinois, at the 
salary usually paid where he is employed to teachers of 
like qualifications, grade, preparation, and experience. 

In guaranty of this pledge the person receiving the 
scholarship shall sign four promissory notes with security 



appe:ndixe:s 143 

approved by the district school board. Said notes shall 
be for one hundred and fifty dollars each, payable one at 
the expiration of each year which the maker is pledged to 
teach, and shall bear intevrest after maturity at the rate of 
six per cent, per annum. Two of th?se notes shall be made 
payable to the school district issuing the scholarship, two 
to the Department of Registration and Education. One 
of these notes shall be cancelled without payment of the 
principal sum at the end of each year taught in accordance 
with the pledge. The four years of teaching for which 
notes are cancelled must be completed within six years 
after graduation, unless the time is extended by the Su- 
perintendent of Public Instruction. 

Section 6. Boards of Education and Boards of Direc- 
tors are hereby authorized to pay out of their fund for 
operating expenses the amount required for the scholar- 
ships issued by them. 

Section 7. On or before December 15, the Director 
of Registration and Education shall report to the Auditor 
of Public Accounts the names of all students holding 
valid approved district scholarships who are attending the 
several state teacher-training institutions, and the Audi- 
tor is hereby instructed to issue not later than January 
15, a warrant of $150 in favor of each student reported, 
said warrant to be delivered to the student upon his 
filing the promissory note requested by this Act. 

Section 8. The school board issuing a scholarship may 
release the student who received it from his obligation to 
teach in that district. The obligation to teach four years 
in the state remains in force. The Superintendent of 
Public Instruction shall have power to release any stu- 
dent from his obligation to teach or to pay the promissory 
notes he has made, if the school board which issued the 
scholarship certifies that his physical or mental condition 



144 state: mainte:nance oi? te;ache;rs in training 

is such as to disqualify him for teaching as required in 
this Act. The death of a student shall release the sureties 
upon his promissory notes given in accordance with this 
Act. 

Section 9. To provide funds for carrying out the pro- 
visions of this Act the sum of $150,000 is hereby appro- 
priated to the Department of Registration and Education 
for the year 1921-22, $300,000 for the year 1922-23, or 
such part of these sums as may be needed. 

Section 10. The Superintendent of Public Instruction 
is hereby authorized to make such rules as are necessary 
to carry out the provisions of this Act. 



VITA 

The author of this dissertation, Walter Scott Hertzog, 
was born at CaHfornia, Washington county, Pennsylvania, 
on September 5, 1874. He received his early education 
in the Southwestern Pennsylvania Normal School in his 
home town, graduating in 1891. He was a student at 
Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio, 1893-97, receiving the de- 
gree of Bachelor of Arts in 1897. In 1900, after com- 
pleting a year of non-resident work he received the de- 
gree of Master of Arts from Hiram College. In 1901-02 
he was a student in education in the University of Leipzig. 

In 1 91 9 he entered Teachers' College, Columbia Uni- 
versity and received the degree of Master of Arts in 1920. 
He remained for the Columbia University Summer Ses- 
sion and completed the requirements for the degree of 
Doctor of Philosophy in the year 1920-21. 



146 



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021 774 735 1 



